Chemistry Experiments, P¶

Palladium, Pd (Greek Pallas (Athene) goddess), white metal, hard, ductile, transition metal, free element, similar to silver. was called "new silver".

It was used for contact points for flintlock pistols, boiling vessels and crucibles.

Now used as foil, powder and wire, in low voltage electrical contacts, and as catalysts for organic chemical synthesis and carbon bond forming reactions, e.g. C-C.

It is a lustrous silver-white metal.

It is resistant to corrosion in air and acids, but is attacked by hot acids, and dissolves in aqua regia.

It can absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen.

It is used in jewellery as "white gold" alloys with platinum.

It is now the main ingredient of catalytic converters to reduce emissions from car exhausts, replacing platinum.

Also, it is used in wide screen televisions, computers and mobile phones, as tiny multi-layer ceramic capacitors.

Atomic number 46, Atomic mass 106.42 g. mol-1, Density 11.9 g.cm-3 at 20C

M. P, 1560 oC, 9 isotopes, Standard electrode potential + 0.85 V (Pd2+/ Pd )

Palladium (II) acetate, Palladium (II) chloride, Palladium AAS Solution

Palmitic acid¶

Palmitic acid, CH₃(CH₂)₁₄COOH, saturated fatty acid, hexadecanoic acid, cetylic acid source

It occurs in olive oil, coconut oil and palm oil.

Palmitic alcohol, hexadecanoic, cetyl alcohol, 1-hexadecanol, CH₃(CH₂)₁₅OH source

Palmityl alcohol, CH₃(CH₂)₁₄CH₂OH, hexadecanol source

Palmitoleic acid¶

Palmitoleic acid, C₁₆H₃₀O₂, CH₃(CH₂)₅CH=CH(CH 2)7COOH, irritant, unsaturated fatty acid, carboxylesterase inhibitor source

It occurs in glycerides of human adipose tissue, and in human blood serum.

It is possibly anti-thrombotic to prevent stroke.

It occurs in (Macadamia integrifolia).

Pancreatin¶

Pancreatin, (commercial product), is an alcohol extract of hog pancreas used as enzyme replacement therapy.

Pancreatin contains pancreatic enzymes, trypsin, amylase, and lipase, and is used as a digestive aid.

Pancreatin is used to replace digestive enzymes when the body does not have enough of its own.

9.2.5 Digestion in the intestines, pancreatin suspension

Pancracine¶

Pancracine, C₁₆H₁₇NO₄, is an isoquinoline alkaloid. source

It occurs in (Pancratium maritimum), and in (Amaryllis belladonna).

Pantothenic acid¶

Pantothenic acid, C₉H₁₇NO₅, Vitamin B5, is an essential nutrient for many animals, and an antidote to curare poisoning. source

Pantothenic acid, an antioxidant, is a component of coenzyme A (CoA) and a part of the vitamin B2 complex.

It is an essential nutrient to synthesize coenzyme-A (CoA),proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.

The D-isomer is a water-soluble essential nutrient in most food, especially egg yolks, sunflower seeds, blueberries, mulberries, and cherry tomatoes.

Calcium pantothenate, C₁₈H₃₂CaN₂O₁₀, is used as a stable dietary supplement. source

19.2.5 Freezing, thawing and cold storage of meat

13.12 Nutritional value of eggs

Paracetamol¶

Paracetamol, C₈H₉NO₂, CH₃CONHC₆H₄OH, acetaminophen, 4-Acetamidophenol, Tylenol, odourless, white crystalline solid, bitter taste. aqueous solution pH 6 source

It is a non-narcotic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, the most commonly taken analgesic, and helps to reduce fever.br> It occurs in varios forms including effervescent tablets and in other medications where dosage may vary.

The suggested dose of paracetamol for adults and children 12 years and over is: no more than 1g every 4 to 6 hours, a total of 4g daily

Paraldehyde¶

Paraldehyde, C₆H₁₂O₃, colourless liquid, hypnotic, sedative, anticonvulsant, but seldom used, because administration difficult, so now a former sedative. source

Parchment¶

Parchment, treated animal skin, (French parchemin, pergumin, 'writing material')

Particles¶

Particles of matter, Diffusion

Particles, matter as particles, size of particles

Particles, Surface / volume ratio

Parts per million, (Measurement)

11.5.6 Movement of suspended aluminium powder

11.3.6 Size of colloidal particles

11.3.7 Size of oil molecule

Patuletin¶

Patuletin, C₁₆H₁₂O₈, (6-Methoxyquercetin), Quercetagetin 6-methyl ether, Trimethoxyflavone, antioxidant, analgesic, lipoxygenase inhibitor source

It occurs in German camomile, and in pigment from flowers of French marigold, (Tagetes patul).

Pectin¶

Pectin, (β-D-Galactopyranuronic acid)n, a heteropolysaccharide, from cell walls of plants, (C₆H₁₀O₇)n source

It is composed of linked methylated polygalacturonic acid units.

Pectin is a safe food substance.

16.1.9 Pectin

4.3.2 Pectins and pectinases

Pectins, E440, Emulsifiers, food additives

16.5.8, Tests for pectin in jelly and jam

Pedalitin¶

Pedalitin, C₁₆H₁₂O₇, flavone, tetrahydroxyflavone, monomethoxyflavone, xanthine oxidase inhibitor, inhibits lipogenase source

It occurs in (Eremosparton songoricum), (Rabdosia japonica), (Ruellia tuberosa), (Sesamum indicum), and in Sullivantia.

Pelargonidin¶

Pelargonidin, C₁₅H₁₁O₅, an anthocyanin, (produced from flavylium,C₁₅H₁₁O⁺, grape skin extract), orange pigment source

It occurs in human gut microbiota, berries, kidney beans, philodendron, and in snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus).

Pelargonin¶

Pelargonin, C₂₇H₃₁O₁₅, pelargonidin, (3,5-di-beta-D-glucoside), anthocyanin source

It occurs in the Mukul myrrh tree, (Comiphora mukul).

Pentan¶

Pentan-1-ol, colourless liquid, bad smell

Pentan-1-ol, C₅H₁₂O, 1-pentanol, n-amyl alcohol, n-amyl alcohol, normal amyl alcohol, toxic, Flammable source

Pentan-1-ol, Solution < 25%, Not hazardous

Pentan-2-ol, C₅H₁₂O, 2-pentanol, sec-amyl alcohol, n-pentyl alcohol, toxic by all routes, Flammable source

Pentan-2-one, methyl propyl ketone, toxic by all routes, Highly flammable

Pentan-3-one, diethyl ketone, toxic by all routes, Highly flammable

Pentyl¶

Pentyl -(C₅H₁₁) source

Pentyl alcohol, C₅H₁₁OH, pentan-1-ol (amyl alcohol, n-pentyl alcohol) source

Pentyl butyrate, n-amyl butyrate (apricot odour), moderate flammability

Pentyl ethanoate, C₅H₁₂O, n-amyl acetate, normal amyl acetate, pentyl acetate, 1-pentanol source

Pentyl propanoate, n-amyl propionate, Highly flammable

Prepare amyl acetate, (pear oil): 16.3.7, n-pentyl acetate

Peonidin¶

Peonidin, C₁₆H₁₃O₆, anthocyanin source

It occurs in Lowbush blueberry, (Vaccinium angustifolium).

Peonidin chloride, C₁₆H₁₃ClO₆, anthocyanidin chloride, antineoplastic, apoptosis induce, antioxidant source

Penetrating oil¶

For example:WD-40

1. To treat parasitic mites mange, remove toe stuck in the bathtub faucet, remove substances stuck on surfaces, remove oil spots from driveways.

2, Prevent dead insects and mud sticking to bicycles and cars, clean clogged spray paint can nozzles, thread electrical wire to push through conduits.

3. Clean gardening equipment, prevent squeaks in door hinges and new shoes, remove grease from clothing, polish wood furniture, remove crayonmarks.

Pepper¶

Pepper, black pepper, spice, Piper nigrum

Black pepper, (Piper nigrum), "pepper", commercial pepper

Separate pepper from salt and pepper: Chilli Project

Chilli pepper, Capsicum annuum, Solanaceae

In the U.S. the Capsicum species are called "peppers".

Peptides¶

7.1.13 Peptides

ATP, adenosine triphosphate: 16.2.4

Blood constituents (humans): 9.1.2

Construct molecular models: 11.2.3

Glycoproteins and glycolipids: 16.1.16

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide): 5.5.18

Peptides: 16.1.26

Tests for proteins, biuret test: 9.4.2

Tests for proteins, heat test for proteins: 9.4.4

Peptone¶

Peptone is a soluble protein formed during protein breakdown in the digestive tract.

Peptone is a water-soluble mixture of polypeptides and amino acids from partial hydrolysis of protein, e.g. beef peptone.

Peptone

Perchloric acid¶

Perchloric acid, HClO₄, ClHO₄, chloric (VII) acid, 70% W/W (strong acid), clear, colourless, odourless aqueous solution, toxic by all routes. source

Perchloric acid, strong oxidizing agent if hot, spontaneous explosion of soaked wood, explosive mixture with combustibles or organic compounds

It is corrosive to metals and tissues, closed containers may rupture. violently if heated.

Perchloric acid should not be used or stored in a school science laboratory.

Perchlorates, (ClO₄^-) source

Storing oxidizing agents: 3.7.8.

Perillyl alcohol¶

Perilla alcohol, C₁₀H₁₆O, Perillol, monoterpene alcohol, a limonene monoterpenoid, woody odour, may be anticancer source

It occurs in essential oils of, lavender, bergamot, Tetradenia, Magnolia, citrus oils, hops, caraway, and in mints.

Perillaldehyde¶

Perillaldehyde, C₁₀H₁₄O, sushi flavour, terpene aroma, perilla sugar It occurs in Perilla, (Perilla frutescens), Lamiaceae. source

Perillene¶

Perillene C₁₀H₁₄O, a monoterpenoid, it may be anti-inflammatory. source

It has a flowery, citrus-like flavour, and is secreted by thrips, (order Thysanoptera), for defence.

It occurs in Perilla, (Perilla frutescens), and in (Humulus lupulus).

Periodic acid¶

Periodic acid, HIO₄ and H₅IO₆, toxic by all routes, explosive mixture with combustibles or organic compounds. source

ACS reagent, 100 g in glass bottle

Permanganate ion¶

Permanganate ion, manganate (VII) ion, (MnO₄^-) source

Permanganates have purple colour and are soluble in water, noncombustible.

They accelerate burning of combustible material, especially finely divided material when permanganates may spontaneously ignite.

Contact of permanganates with sulfuric acid may cause fire or explosion.

Permethrin¶

Permethrin, C₂₁H₂₀Cl₂O₃, ester, pale brown liquid. Relatively water insoluble, sold as: "Nix, Ambush, Pounce, Transpermethrin" source

Pyrethrins occur in pyrethruµm extract from chrysantheµmuµm flowers.

The pyrethrins are used in household insecticides and products to control insects on pets or livestock.

Pyrethroids are similar manufactured chemicals, which are ore toxic and last longer in the environment.

Permitted in schools¶

Quantity of chemical to be used in experiments: 3.4.11, (5 mL of solution)

Chemical residues: 3.3.0

Chemical hazzards

Chemical Standards National Formulary, NF

Chemical vapours and smelling chemicals3.4.4

Petroleum¶

Petroleum, petrol, gasoline, "gas", Highly flammable, toxic by all routes.

Do not inhale vapour and do not use petrol as a paint "thinner".

Distil crude oil and collect the fractions: : 10.3.9

Fractional distillation of crude oil: 16.8.1

Petrol, "gas", gasoline, motor fuel: 16.8.10

Petroleum (crude oil and gas): 35.3.10

Petrol-sniffing (Abuse of volatile substances): 5.5.2

Petroleum-based spray oils, + emulsifying agent, horticultural oils, block insect spiracles, e.g. "PestOil"

Petroleum gas; 16.8.10

Petroleum fraction: 7.4.45

Petroleum spirit: 7.4.46

Petroleum jelly, "Vaseline", petrolatum

Experiment

Separate by fractional distillation: 10.3.6

Petroselenic acid¶

Petroselenic acid, C₁₈H₃₄O₂, (6-Octadecenoic acid), irritant, and is used as a major seed oil constituent. source

It occurs in parsley seed, (Petroselenium crispum), ( Agaricus blazei), and in (Angelica ternata).

Petunidin¶

Petunidin, C₁₆H₁₃ClO₇, petunidin chloride, an anthocyanidin chloride source

It occurs in Aronia, (Amelanchier alnifolia), (Vitis vinifera), (Vitis rotundifolia), (Vicia faba), and in the petal colours of Sweet pea, (Lathyrus odoratus).

Petunidol chloride, C₁₆H₁₃ClO₇, anthocyanidin chloride, petunidin is the cationic component. source

Pewter¶

Pewter, malleable, alloy of mostly Sn, + some Cu, Sb, and Bi, previously used for cheap mugs and dishes.

pH tests¶

pH tests: 18.2.0, pH tests of the environment

Acid-base indicators

Adjusting the pH of swimming pool water

Change in pH near the equivalence point: 12.2.2

pH: 12.3.6

pH of salt solutions: 12.10.7

pH of solid acids: 19.1.11

pH of swimming pools: 18.3.0

pH soil test: 6.10.7

Prepare acid-base indicators:

Prepare acid-base plant extract indicators: 5.6.3

Soil acidity: 6.1.0

Tests with multiple reagent strips: 19.5.6, (See: pH tests)

Phase¶

7.9.15 Phase, Continuous phase / outer phase

24.10.0 Phase changes, liquid / solid, M P, and F P

24.11.0 Phase changes, liquid / gas, boiling point, B P

Phaseolic acid¶

Phaseolic acid, C₁₃H₁₂O₈, phenylpropanoid, an oxybutanedioic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid source

It occurs in leaves of (Phaseolus vulgaris), (Trifolium pratense), and in (Raphanus sativus).

Phaseolin, C₂₀H₁₀O₄, phytoalexin, occurs in the French bean, (Phaseolus vulgaris), Fabaceae, and in the stems of Erythrina. source

Phenyl group, (C6H5)¶

Phenyl group, (C₆H₅) source

1-phenylazo-2-naphthol, C₁₆H₁₂N₂O, Sudan I, Solvent Yellow 14, toxic. skin irritant, purchase solution source

3-phenylpropenoate, C₁₁H₁₂O₂, (Ethyl cinnamate, 3-phenylpropenoate, toxic, Flammable) source

3-phenyl propenoic acid, C₉H₈O₂, C₉H₁₀O₂, C₆H₅CH:CHCOOH, cinnamic acid, toxic if ingested source

Phenyl benzoate, C₁₃H₁₀O₂ (recrystallization experiments, ethanol solvent), benzene substitute, toxic, Irritant, Flammable source

Phenyl bromide, C₆H₅Br, Bromobenzene: 12.6.3 source

Phenylpropenes: 16.3.45

Phenylalanine, C9H11NO2¶

Phenylalanine, C₉H₁₁NO₂ source

Phenylalanine, C₉H₁₁NO₂, L-phenylalanine, a phenylpropanoic acid, odourless white crystalline powder, slightly bitter taste source

Phenylalanine is an essential aromatic amino acid and is a precursor of melanin, C₁₈H₁₀N₂O₄. source

Phenylalanine, DNA codons

Phenylalanine, sweetener: 19.2.6

Phenylalanine (Table of amino acids)

Phenylalanine, DNA codons

Aniline, C₆H₅NH₂, phenylamine source

Phenylethene, (C₆H₅CH,CH₂), vinyl benzene, styrene source

Phenylhydrazine, C₆H₈N₂, Highly toxic by all routes source

Phenylhydrazine, C₆H₈N₂, Solution / mixture < 1%, Not hazardous source

Phenylhydrazine hydrochloride, phenylhydrazinium chloride, Highly toxic by all routes

Phenylthiocarbamide, C₇H₈N₂S, PTC, phenylthiourea, (PTU), tasters: 9.9.5 source

Phenylthiocarbamide, C₇H₈N₂S, PTC: 3.19 source

Phenylthiourea, C₇H₈N₂S, phenylthiocarbamide, 1-phenyl-2-thiourea (rat poison), Highly toxic if ingested, asthmatics may be allergic source

Phenylthiourea, C₇H₈N₂S, 0.1% solution soaked in paper used for taster / non-taster genetic test, Experiment Not permitted in schools source

Phenylurea, C₆H₅NHCONH₂, phenylcarbamate, toxic if ingested source

Phytoalexins¶

Phytoalexins are toxic substances, usually isoflavonoids or terpenoids, produced in plants only after stimulation by pathogenic fung, bacteria, and nematodes.

The phytoalexins are produced by healthy cells near damaged cells in response to substances diffusing from the damaged cells.

Phytoalexins: Phaseollin C₂₀H₁₀O₄, Pisatin C₁₇H₁₄O₆, Glyceollin C₂₀H₁₈O₅, Rishitin,C₁₄H₂₂O₂, Gossypol C₃₀H₃₀O₈, and Capsidiol C₁₅H₂₄O₂. source

Phenanthroline¶

16.1.27 Phenolphthalein

1,10-phenanthroline monohydrate, use in fume cupboard or < 10 g in cross ventilation (redox indicator), toxic

1,10-phenanthroline iron complex, ferroin solution (redox indicator), toxic if ingested

1,10-phenanthroline iron complex, [10-phenanthroline with iron (II) salt], purchase already diluted solution

Phenethyl alcohol¶

Phenethyl alcohol, C₈H₁₀O or C₆H₅CH₂CH₂OH, benzeneethanol, benzyl carbinol, phenol, benzene, primary alcohol, irritant source

It is used as a fragrance in rose perfume, plant growth retardant, antimicrobial, antiseptic, disinfectant, aromatic essence and preservative in pharmaceutics.

It occurs in almond flavouring ingredient, ylang-ylang oil, citrus essential oils, Zanthoxylum, (Rosa rugosa), Pinus, (Piper longum), and in Populus.

Perovskite¶

Perovskite, calcium titanate mineral, CaTiO₃, used in newer solar cells, source

Phenylpropanolamine¶

Phenylpropanolamine, (PPA). Norephedrine, β-hydroxyamphetamine, C₉H₁₃NO, irritant, stimulates release of norepinephrine. source

It acts in the mucosa of the respiratory tract causing vasoconstriction and reduction in swelling of nasal mucous membranes.

It is used as a decongestant and appetite suppressant, formerly in commercial cough and cold medicine, but no longer used in USA and Canada.

β-hydroxyamphetamine has 4 isomers,d- and l-norephedrine and d- and l-norpseudoephedrine.

d-Norpseudoephedrine is Cathine, and it occurs in Khat (Catha edulis).

Phenyl salicylate¶

Phenyl salicylate, C₁₃H₁₀O₃, phenyl-2-hydroxybenzoate, salol, toxic if ingested, flammable. source

Phenyl salicylate is prepared by heating salicylic acid with phenol.

It is used in experiments to show how cooling rates affect crystal size.

It was formerly used in sunscreens.

Phenoxyethanol¶

Phenoxyethanol, C₈H₁₀O₂, ethylene glycol monophenyl ether, colorless oily liquid. faint aromatic pleasant odour source

It is used as a perfume fixative, insect repellent, antiseptic, solvent, preservative, to inactivate bacteria, and yeast, and a fish anesthetic!

It is the most commonly used preservative in personal care formulations. sunscreens, and cosmetics.

It occurs in green tea and it is produced chemically by: phenol + ethylene oxide (EU).

Phloroglucinol¶

Phloroglucinol, C₆H₆O₃, (1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene), harmful if ingested, corrosive to skin source

It is used as wood stain.

It occurs in (Cytospora ceratosperma), and in (Humulus lupulus).

Prepare phloroglucinol solution: 7.35

Phosphine¶

Phosphine, PH₃, gas, colourless, flammable, high toxic, rotten fish garlic smell, silicon solid state device doping agent, grain insecticidem, "QuickPhos" source

It occurs in marsh lights, (will-o'-the-wisp), from decayed organic matter.

Diphosphane, P₂H₄ source

Phosphorescence¶

"Glow in Dark Sheet and Pen", UV light pen on GID phosphorescent sheet, (toy product)

"Glow Jumping Putty", phosphorescence (toy product)

Phosphorescence is the green glow from the slow oxidation of white phosphorus, an example of chemiluminescence.

However, the term phosphorescence is also used to describe a situation when the luminescence persists although the exciting cause has been removed.

A phosphorescent material irradiated with UV light will emit light of a lower energy for an appreciable interval of time.

If a phosphorescent powder is irradiated with another fluorescent material, when radiation source is removed the phosphorescent powder emits light.

Marine phosphorescence is not caused by phosphorus, but by chemical reactions in bioluminescent bacteria.

However, rotting herring glows, caused by combustion of rotting products, Diphosphane, P₂H₄. source

Phosphorescent minerals continue to emit light after the ultraviolet light ceases.

Phosphorus Europium, Eu

Yttrium, Y

Terbium, Tb

14.3.2 Fluorophores

Phosphorus

Phosphorus Table of Elements

Phosphorus, RSC

Phosphorus, P, (Greek phōsphoros, light-bringing), non-metal, allotropes, white waxy solid, in minerals and organisms.

It occurs mainly as phosphates and in many minerals, e.g. apatite.

Phosphorus has 2 main allotropes:

1. White phosphorus, yellow phosphorus, translucent, white-yellow, very reactive, poisonous, not permitted in schools.

2. Red phosphorus, high mp. low reactivity, low toxicity.

Phosphorus-32, reactor-produced medical radioisotope, half-life 14.28 days, used to treat excess red blood cells.

Phosphates are important agricultural fertilizers, e.g. the P in NPK fertilizer.

Phosphorus occurs as inorganic calcium phosphate in bones and teeth, in tissue and in the ATP molecule, and in urine.

The recommended daily allowance, RDA, is 1200 mg.

Phosphoric acid, H₃PO₄, behaves as a tribasic acid, although the normal salts are much hydrolysed in solution. source

Phosphorescence is the green glow from the slow oxidation of white phosphorus and is an example of chemiluminescence.

Phosphorus deficiency in soils: 6.12.4

Phosphorus deficiency: 1.11.0

Phosphorus soil tests, Bray test and Colwell test: 6.10.8

Red phosphorus, P₄ source

Red phosphorus: Safety matches

White phosphorus, P₄, yellow phosphorus source

Phosphorus compounds¶

Reactions of phosphorus compounds: 12.9.0

Decomposition of phosphates: 3.7.16 Detergent phosphates: 12.5.4

Diphosphane, P₂H₄ source

Matches, safety matches

Phosphates

Phosphine, PH₃ source

Phosphoric acid

Phosphorous compounds, organophosphorus insecticides: 16.7.14

Phosphorus oxychloride, phosphoryl chloride, Highly toxic by all routes

Phosphorus oxychloride, Solution / mixture < 5%, Not hazardous

Phosphorus pentachloride with water: 12.19.8.8

Phosphorus sesquisulfide, P₄S₃, yellow solid, in "strike anywhere" matches source

Phosphorus tribromide, phosphorus (III) bromide, Highly toxic by all routes, Highly corrosive

Phosphorus tribromide, reacts with moisture to form toxic fumes and heat, so use in fume cupboard or small quantities in cross-ventilation

Phosphorus tribromide, Solution / mixture <5%, Not hazardous

Phosphorus trichloride with water: 12.9.8

Phosphorus (V) chloride

Phosphorylation

Phosphonates, Ethephon: 4.4.8

Phosphonates, Glyphosate: 4.4.9

Prepare microcosmic salt: 12.9.1

Reactions of phosphorus compounds: 12.9.0

Phosphorus (III) chloride

Phosphorus pentoxide

Superphosphate: 20.4.16

Tests for phosphate ions in water: 18.4.1

Tests for phosphates: 12.11.15

Phosphates¶

Phosphates are essential for development of bones and teeth, genetic material, Phosphate ion, PO₄₃^- source

Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4, triammonium phosphate (V)-3-water, ammonium phosphate tribasic, nitrogen and phosphorus garden fertilizer, flame retardant, added to baking powders to promote yeast growth.

Ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate (V)-4-water, Na(NH₄)HPO₄.4H₂O, ammonium sodium hydrogen orthophosphate, microsmic salt (from urine). source

Ammonium sodium hydrogen orthophosphate, Na(NH₄)HPO₄.4H₂O, microsmic salt (from urine) source

ATP, adenosine triphosphate: 16.2.4

Bone phosphate: E542

Calcium phosphate:20.4.12, Ca₃(PO₄)₂ source

Chromium (III) phosphate, CrH₈O₈P, Chromium (III) phosphate tetrahydrate source

Decomposition of phosphates: 3.30.13

Detergent phosphates: 12.5.4

Detergents use polyphosphates or zeolite to make calcium inactive in the system

Diammonium phosphate, diammonium hydrogen phosphate (DAP) (NH4)2HPO4

Inorganic builders in washing powders: 12.6.8

Monoammonium phosphate (MAP)

Monopotassium phosphate (MKP)

"Yates Anti Rot Phosacid": 4.3.4, (Agriculture)

Phosphate ions in water: 18.4.1,Tests for

Phosphates hazards: 3.7.14

Phospholipids (phosphoglycerides): 16.1.10

Phosphorous compounds, organophosphorus insecticides: 16.2.6

Prepare solutions: 3.0

Reactions of phosphorus and phosphates: 12.13.1

Remove water hardness: 12.2.5

Soaps and synthetic detergents, "syndets": 12.5.1

Sodium acid pyrophosphate food grade

Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (V)

Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP)

Sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), Na₅P₃O₁₀ source

Soil-less culture, Knop's, hydroponics: 9.2.3

Struvite mineral, (NH4)MgPO4.6H₂O, ammonium magnesium phosphate source

Superphosphate: 12.4.16

Teeth and toothpaste: 9.3.13.1, calcium hydroxyapatite

Tests for phosphate ions in water: 18.4.1

Tests for phosphates: 12.11.15

Tetrapotassium pyrophosphate (TKPP )

Trisodium orthophosphate

Na₃PO₄ (TSP), "sodium phosphate": E339 source

Urea phosphate, UP, CH₇N₂O₅P, urea phosphoric acid source

Phosphoric acid¶

Phosphoric acid, H₃PO₄, orthophosphoric acid, phosphoric (V) acid, crystalline, as solution is colourless, odourless liquid, conc. 14.7.M, RD 1.71 to 1.75 source

It is miscible with water and ethanol, "Kill-rust", E33, weak acid, or, white rhombic solid, 85% W /W, 90% W / W, toilet bowl cleaner.

Phosphoric acid is prepared in industry by heating calcium phosphate rock with sulfuric acid, prepare by red phosphorus with nitric acid.

Low cost from hardware stores, rust remover, e.g. "Naval Jelly", "Killrust", or, for cleaning concrete, from brewing suppliers, from hydroponics suppliers.

Phosphoric acid sequestering agent binds divalent cations, including Fe++, Cu++, Ca++, and Mg++.

Phosphoric acid, concentrated, 16 M, 95%, Phosphoric acid 85% min food grade 130 mL of concentrated solution for 1 litre of 2 M solution

Phosphoric acid, > 4 M (72%) (may be supplied as 85%) (used in rust converters), toxic. Highly corrosive to skin

Phosphoric acid, < 4 M (72%), > 2 M (36%), toxic. Highly corrosive to skin

Phosphoric acid, < 2 M (36%), > 0.5 M (10%), toxic. skin irritant

Phosphoric acid, < 0.5 M (10%), Not hazardous, but do not ingest

Phosphoric acid, ionization reaction: 12.3.7

Ionization reaction:

H₃PO₄ + H₂O < → H₃O⁺ + H₂PO₄^- source

H₂PO₄^- + H₂O < → H₃O⁺ + HPO₄₂^- source

HPO₄₂^-+ H₂O < → H₃O⁺ + PO₄₃^- source

Phosphorus (III) chloride¶

Phosphorus (III) chloride, PCl₃, phosphorus trichloride, + water → phosphorous acid, H₃PO₃ source

Phosphorus (V) chloride PCl₅, garlic-like odour, very soluble in water source

Prepare phosphorus trichloride, PCl₃: 12.9.2 source

Phosphorus pentoxide¶

Phosphorus pentoxide, P₂O₅, phosphoric anhydride, P₄O₁₀, phosphorus (V) oxide, phosphoric oxide, white powder, hexagonal crystals, deliquescent source

It is thermoluminescent, toxic by ingestion, highly corrosive.

Phosphorus pentoxide reacts violently with water to form phosphoric acid, liberating a large amount of heat, reacts violently with iodides.

With sodium and potassium metals ignition on contact.

With formic acid forms highly toxic carbon monoxide gas.

It is used as a dehydrating agent.

The crust on the surface of old samples is mostly phosphoric acid, but remove it before using the phosphorus pentoxide beneath.

Prepare phosphorus pentoxide: 12.9.4

Phosphorylation¶

Phosphorylation means adding a phosphate group to a molecule, e.g. when a phosphate molecule is added to an organic compound.

For example: adenosine diphosphate (ADP) + Phosphate → adenosine triphosphate (ATP) source

ATP, adenosine triphosphate: 16.2.4

Tests for glucose, urine test: 19.1.31

Tetrapyrroles, bilin, bilirubin, biliverdin, haeme: Tetrapyrroles

Phosphorus (V) chloride¶

Phosphorus (V) chloride, PCl₅, phosphorus pentachloride, light yellow colour, + hot water → ortho-phosphoric acid, H₃PO₄ source

Phosphorus (V) chloride, PCl₅, phosphorus pentachloride source

Phosphorus (V) chloride, phosphorus pentachloride, Highly toxic by all routes, highly corrosive

Phosphorus (V) chloride, Solution / mixture < 5%, Not hazardous

Prepare phosphorus pentachloride, PCl₅: 12.13.3 source

Photochemical reactions¶

"Sun Blueprint Paper", photochemical reactions (toy product)

Chloramines in swimming pools: 18.1.5

Chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs, "Freons": 12.19.5.0

Ozone and photochemical smog: 13.5.1

Photolysis: 7.4.47

Photography¶

Disposal of photography wastes: 15.1.9.1

Reactions of silver halides: 12.19.2.6

Phyllanthin¶

Phyllanthin, C₂₄H₃₄O₆, lignan, bitter taste, in Phyllanthus niruri leaves source

Phyllanthostatin A¶

Phyllanthostatin A, C₂₉H₃₀O₁₃, phyllanthocide, lignan, cytostatic, in Phyllanthus acuminatus source

Phloxine B¶

Phloxine B, antibacterial fluorescent dye, (2,4,5,7-Tetrabromo-4,5,6,7-tetrachlorofluorescein disodium salt)

Phytolaccoside B¶

Phytolaccoside B, C₃₆H₅₆O₁₁, esculentoside B, triterpenoid saponin, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory source

It occurs in Pokeweed, (Phytolacca americana).

Phytoene¶

Phytoene, C₄₀H₆₄, Phytofluene, C₄₀H₆₂, fatty acids, carotenoid biosynthesis, may prevent UV sun damage to the skin and carcinogenesis, occurs in tomatoes and apricots. source

Picric acid¶

Picric acid, C₆H₃N₃O₇, C₆H₂(NO₂)₃OH, (2,4,6-trinitrophenol), trinitrophenol, carbazotic acid, toxic. skin irritant. source

It is Not permitted in schools.

Picric acid, yellow crystals stain skin yellow.

Explosive when dry and compacted.

Do not open bottles, because crust may explode.

Picric acid, (stains yellow, unstable explosive. used in Gram stain and Bouin's picro-formol preservative solution.

Picrates, salts of picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol)

Piceid¶

Piceid, C₂₀H₂₂O₈, Polydatin, a stilbenoid glucoside, a natural precursor and glycoside form of resveratrol, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective. source

It occurs in the bark of Sitka spruce, (Picea sitchensis), Pinaceae, Japanese knotweed, (Polygonum cuspidatum), Polygonaceae, and in Hops, (Humulus lupulus).

It occurs in False hellebore, (Veratrum dahuricum), Melanthiaceae, and also in red wines and cocoa.

It is used to treat colorectal cancer.

Picrocrocin¶

Picrocrocin, C₁₆H₂₆O₇, is an ester, a monoterpene glucoside, (Saffron-bitter), with a bitter taste, and an hay-like fragrance. source

Picrocrocin is the beta-D-glucoside most responsible for the bitter taste of saffron.

Piezoelectric¶

Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, monobasic ammonium phosphate (piezoelectric crystal in microphones and transducers)

Earphones, crystal microphones: 38.2.1

Piezoelectricity: 32.1.2.1

Piezoelectricity with red lead and sulfur: 35.33.0

Transducer, carbon microphone: 26.4.8

Pimpinellin¶

Pimpinellin, C₁₃H₁₀O₅, chromen-2-one, furanocoumarin, tuberculostatic source

It occurs in roots of (Pimpinella saxifraga), Heracleum, Angelica, Cyperus, and in Artemisia.

Pinocembrin¶

Pinocembrin, C₁₅H₁₂O₄, dihydrochrysin, dihydroxyflavanone, antioxidant, antineoplastic, vasodilator, neuroprotective source

It occurs in human gut microbiota, and in (Piper sarmentosum).

Piperonal¶

Piperonal, C₈H₆O₃, piperonyl aldehyde, heliotropine, benzodioxole, colourless lustrous crystals, irritant, fragrance, insect repellent, flavouring agent source

It occurs in cherry, and in Highbush blueberry, (Vaccinium corymbosum).

Pipettes¶

Pipettes: 3.4.9 (Safety)

Pipettes, Microbiology: 4.2.10 (Safety)

Inoculate with a Pasteur pipette: 4.2.6 (Safety)

Pipettes

Pitch¶

Pitch, (Chemistry), resinous semi-liquid distillate from wood tar, for caulking wooden ships, link torches were used in dark streets.

Plantamajoside¶

Plantamajoside, C₂₉H₃₆O₁₆, phenylpropanoid, hydroxycinnamic acid, anti-inflammatory, anti-asthmatic, against plant pathogenic bacteria. source

It occurs in Plantago, and in (Rehmania glutinosa).

Planteose¶

Planteose, C₁₈H₃₂O₁₆, (6F-alpha-D-Galactosylsucrose), trisaccharide, occurs in (Sesamum indicum). source

Plaster of Paris¶

Make casts of bird footprints: 9.4.6

Make objects and moulds with plaster of Paris: 3.6.4

Plaster of Paris, calcium sulfate hemihydrate, hygroscopic, CaSO₄.H₂O, Harmful, very hot when water added to dry sulfate. source

Plaster of Paris, Gypsum, calcium sulfate: 35.4.11

(Geology) Prepare fibrous plaster board with plaster of Paris: 3.6.5

Separate by melting points, tin from a tin and carbon mixture: 10.19.0

Tests for strength of plaster of Paris bricks: 34.2.11

Use cornstarch + plaster of Paris to kill cockroaches when they eat the mixture.

Pleuran¶

Pleuran, Β–Glucans, insoluble polysaccharide, C₆H₁₀O₅)x, C₁₈H₃₂O₁₆, anti-tumour drug. source

It occurs in cell walls of oyster mushroom, (leurotus ostreatus), white-rot fungus, (Phanerochaete chrysosporium), and in Oats, (Avena sativa).

Plutonium, Pu¶

Plutonium, Pu

Plutonium, Table of the Elements

Plutonium, RSC

Plutonium, Pu, (Greek Ploutōn underworld god), alloyed with Gallium in nuclear weapons core

Said to be "the most complex element in the periodic table", isolated from uranium by Glen Seaborg in Chicago, 1942 in the Manhattan Project.

It was later used in the first atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan.

Pollution¶

18.1.0 Air pollution

18.3.0 Water pollution

Polonium, Po¶

Polonium, Po

Polonium, Table of the Elements

Polonium, RSC

(Latin Polonia 'Poland', native country of Marie Curie), radioactive poison used to treat lung cancer

Polymethyl methacrylate¶

Polymethyl methacrylate, poly(methyl methacrylate), C₁₇H₂₃NO₆, CH₂C(CH₃)CO₂CH₃)n source

Methyl methacrylate, C₅H₈O₂ or CH₂C(CH₃)COOH₃. methyl ester of methylacrylic acid, CH₂=C(CH3)COOH source

Trade names: "Lucite", "Perspex". "Plexiglass", C₅O₂H₈)n, PMMA, acrylic glass, e.g, acrylic resin, thermoplastic transparent polymer source

Polymethyl methacrylate, PMMA, is a rigid, transparent material that transmits light better than glass.

It is used for acrylic "glass" glazing, optical devices, perspex chips, perspex stirring rod, plexiglass, reflectors, domes, safety glass, baby baths, traffic signs.

Perspex is made by the polymerization of the monomer methyl methacrylate with lauroyl peroxide as a catalyst.

This reaction is highly exothermic if the concentration of the organic peroxide < 1% by weight.

It has very high molecular mass when in sheet form.

Breakdown polymers into small molecules: 3.4.4.0

Polyvinyl acetate¶

Polyvinyl acetate, (C₄H₆O₂)n, synthetic polymer, a polyvinyl ester, a thermoplastic, has rubbery consistency, used in adhesives for porous materials, an ingredient of chewing gum. source

PVA, wood glue, school glue, Elmer's Glue, is widely used, but it can be degraded by microorganisms, e.g. fungi.

The glass transition temperature of polyvinyl acetate is 30 oC to 45 oC.

.

Polyvinyl pyrrolidene¶

Polyvinyl pyrrolidene, C₆H₉NO, n-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone, "Povidone", PVP, is a water-soluble polymer, used as a coating or binder in medical tablets. source

The povidone-iodine complex (PVD-iodine) is in the antiseptic "Betadine".

It has replaced tincture of iodine solution for the topical application of iodine as an antiseptic.

E1201

Poncirin¶

Poncirin, C₂₈H₃₄O₁₄, flavanone glycoside, monomethoxyflavanone, disaccharide derivative, neohesperidoside. source

It occurs in fruit of (Poncirus trifoliata), and in Rock thyme, (Acinos alpinus).

Praseodymium, Pr¶

Praseodymium, Table of the Elements

Praseodymium, RSC

Praseodymium, Pr (Greek prasios green, didumos twin, didymium mineral), green compounds, used in ceramics, glass

Precipitates, Precipitation¶

Precipitates,substances deposited as a solid from a solution, and precipitation as rainfall

Coloured precipitates, double decomposition reactions: 12.2.4.02

Separate by precipitation: 10.11.3

Weather

Moisture leaves the air, precipitation: 37.8.0

Prednisolone¶

Prednisolone, C₂₁H₂₈O₅, metacortandralone, hydroretrocortine, predonine, corticosteroid, synthetic glucocorticosteroid, anti-inflammatory source

It decreases the number of circulating lymphocytes, induces cell differentiation, stimulates apoptosis in tumour cells, and is an environmental contaminant.

Prenylnaringenin¶

Prenylnaringenin, C₂₀H₂₀O₅, 8-PN, flavaprenin, dimethylallylnaringenin, hopein, sophoraflavanone B, "minor flavonoid", prenylflavonoid, phytoestrogen, similar effects to estradiol, antifungal. source

It occurs in resin of Hops, (Humulus lupulus), beer, and in in Wyethia, and it is produced from the flavonone isoxanthohumol, C₂₁H₂₂O₅, in fungal cells culture. source

Proactinium, Pa¶

Proactinium, Pa

Proactinium, Table of the Elements

Protactinium, RSC

Pa, 91Pa, (proactinium "parent of actinium", because radioactive decay to Actinium), radioactive, toxic, no uses, most stable isotope is Protactinium-231.

Producer gas¶

Producer gas, air gas, similar to water gas, formed by passing air and steam over hot carbon

Progoitrin¶

Progoitrin, C₁₁H₁₉NO₁₀S₂, Glucorapiferin, a glucosinolate source

It occurs in cabbage, (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), Brassicaceae, Peanut, (Arachis hypogaea), Fabaceae, and in Horseradish, (Armoracia rusticana), Brassicaceae.

After digestion, it is processed to Goitrin, C₅H₇NOS which decreases production of thyroid hormone, flavour component + breakdown hydrolysis products. source

This precursor of goitrin causing bitter taste in Brassica vegetables and epigoitrin which affects thyroxin secretion.

Epigoitrin, C₅H₇NOS, D-Goitrin, is a constituent of a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, as an antiviral agent. source

Phenethyl glucosinolate potassium salt, C₁₅H₂₀NO₉S₂K, occurs in Brassica, including red cabbage, Brussel sprouts, and in Savoy cabbage. source

Promethazine¶

Promethazine, C₁₇H₂₀N₂S, phenothiazine derivative drug, sedative, antiallergic source

It is used to treat motion sickness, allergic reactions, nausea, and vomiting.

Promethium, Pm¶

Promethium, Pm

Promethium, Table of the Elements

Promethium, RSC

Promethium, Pm (Greek Prometheus, 'who stole fire from the gods'), synthesized in radiation laboratory

Propanethiol¶

Propanethiol, C₃H₈S, CH₃(CH₂)₂SH, propane-1-thiol, n-propylthiol, propyl mercaptan source

Propanethiol is an alkanethiol, colourless to pale yellow liquid, offensive smell like cabbage, moderately toxic, less dense than water, slightly soluble in water, flammable, irritant.

It is used as insecticide, feedstock and herbicide, toxic fumes in a fire.

It occurs in onion, (Allium cepa), and other Allium species, cooked chicken, beef, beer, American potato chips, and in Durian, (Durio zibethinus).

Propionaldehyde¶

Propionaldehyde, C₃H₆O, CH₃CH₂CHO, propanal, propyl aldehyde, toxic by all routes, less dense than water, clear colorless liquid. source

Highly flammable, suffocating fruity-like odour, occurs in (Escherichia coli).

Propionaldehyde, Solution <20%, Not hazardous, but should not be ingested.

Propionic acid¶

Propionic acid, CH₃CH₂COOH, propanoic acid, Corrosive by all routes, Highly irritant vapour, skin irritant source

Propionic acid, Solution / mixture <10%, Not hazardous (stored grains preservative)

16.1.29 Propanoic acid, (propionic acid), ionization reaction

Propionates, Food preservation

19.3.6.10 Food

Proteins¶

Prenylation: adding hydrophobic molecule to a protein so it can be attached to a cell membrane.

Breakdown of protein by micro-organisms: 4.3.2

Burn carbohydrates, fats and proteins: 9.1.1

Milk proteins: 16.3.0, Casein and caseinates

Proteins: 16.7.4

Tests for proteins: 9.4.0

Protocatechuic acid¶

Protocatechuic acid (PCA), C₂H₆O₄, dihydroxybenzoic acid, phenolic acid, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory It protects liver, apoptosis of human leukemia cells. source

It occurs in green tea, (Hibiscus sabdariffa roselle), stem bark of (Boswellia dalzielii), and leaves of (Diospyros melanoxylon).

It occurs in (Euterpe oleracea), açaí palm oil, and in onion skins.

Protonated¶

Protonated is an organic chemistry term for when H+ ion is bonded to something.

Prunetin¶

Prunetin, C₁₆H₁₂O₅, prunusetin, an hydroxyisoflavone, dehydrogenase inhibitor, anti-inflammatory source

It occurs in Prunus, liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), (Iris milesii), and in (Ficus nervosa).

Psicose¶

Psicose, D-Psicose, D-allulose, C₆H₁₂O₆, rare monosaccharide sugar source

It occurs in wheat and in (Polytrichum commune).

Puerarin¶

Puerarin, C₂₁H₂₀O₉, kakonein, an hydroxyisoflavone, cardioprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory source

It occurs in (Pueraria calycina), (Bupleurum chinense), kudzu (Pueraria lobata), and in (Pueraria calycina).

It has been used to treat alcohol withdrawal anxiety symptoms during treatment of alcohol abuse.

Purine, Pyrimidine¶

Purine, Pyrimidine

Purines and pyrimidines are nitrogenous bases.See diagram 16.21.10chd: Purines

Two of the bases in nucleic acids, Adenine and Guanine, are purines.

Purines: Adenine, Guanine

Bases of nucleic acids: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil, Adenosine triphosphate, Thymine, (RNA, DNA)

Related to nucleic acid bases: (Pyrimidine glycosides. Convicine, Vicine), in wheat germ, DNA, 5-Methylcytosine)

Methylated purines: Caffeine, Theobromine Theophylline

Cytokinin purines: Kinetin (Hyalurinidase), Zeatin

Pyrimidine, C₄H₄N₂, 1,3-Diazine, is the parent compound of the Pyrimidines: Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil. source

(Purine-like compounds not from amino acids, so are called "pseudoalkaloids".) (Purine derivatives).

1. Purines, The five bases of nucleic acids:

2. Methylated purines

Caffeine

Theobromine

Theophylline

(Only Caffeine, Theobromine and Theophylline are regarded as "alkaloids".)

3. Pyrimidine glycosides 5-Methylcytosine wheat germ, Vicine C₁₀H₁₆N₄O₇ Convicine C₁₀H₁₅N₃ O8, in Vicia, and in Pisum source

See diagram 16.3.22ch: Purine derivatives

DNA and RNA: 9.4.4.0

Pyrrole¶

Pyrrole, C₄H₅N, (CH)4NH, imidole, aromatic, organic compound, colourless, volatile liquid, darkens on exposure to air. source

Paludolactone¶

Paludolactone, sesquiterpene lactone, eudesmanolide lactone, occurs in Creeping ox-eye (Wedelia paludosa).

Parthenolide¶

Parthenolide, C₁₅H₂₀O₃, sesquiterpenoid lactone, germacranolide, insoluble, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, febrifuge, It is used to release of Serotonin from blood platelets, used to treat migraine headaches. source

It occurs in flowers, fruit, and leaves of Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), and in Sweetbay, (Magnolia virginiana).

Patachoulol¶

Patachoulol, C₁₅H₂₆O, patchouli alcohol, patchouli camphor, tricyclic sesquiterpenoid tertiary alcohol, carbotricyclic compound source

It occurs in essential oil of Patchouli, (Pogostemon patchouli), and it is used to scent cosmetics.

Peppermint oil¶

Peppermint oil, C₆₂H₁₀₈O₇, terpene, Mentha piperita oil. source

It occurs in the essential oil extracted from the leaves of (Mentha x piperita).

It is used for aromatic properties, flavouring, treat disorders of digestive and respiratory system, pain relief.

Peppermint, (Mentha x piperita), Lamiaceae.

Peridinin¶

Peridinin, C₃₉H₅₀O₇, carotenoid pigment, light sensitive, associated with chlorophyll, and it is used as a photosynthesis pigment by some dinoflagellates. source

Perindopril¶

Perindopril, , C₁₉H₃₂N₂O₅, "Coversyl", ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme), blood pressure inhibitor source

Pederindopril erbumine, C₂₃H₄₃N₃O₅, Perindopril tert-butylamine source

An antihypertensive agent and a peptidyl-dipeptidase A inhibitor, used in patients with hypertension and heart failure.

Perilla ketone¶

Perilla ketone, C₁₀H₁₄O₂, lung toxin affecting cattle and horses, and it occurs in Perilla, (Perilla frutescens). source

Perillartine¶

Perillartine, C₁₀H₁₅NO, perillartin, perilla sugar, X 2000 as sweet as sucrose source

It is used in chewing gum,and it occurs in Perilla, (Perilla frutescens).

Petasin¶

Petasin, C₂₀H₂₈O₃, sesquiterpene, is ester of petasol (sencathenone), C₁₅H₂₂O₂, and angelic acid, C₅H₈O₂. source

It may be anti-inflammatory, and it occurs in Butterbur, (Petasites hybridus).

Phellandrene¶

Phellandrene, C₁₀H₁₆, alpha-phellandrene, menthadiene, monocyclic monoterpene, fragrance and flavouring agent with peppermint / citrus taste, occurs in allspice source

Cyclic monoterpene double bond isomers, having a similar molecular structure and similar chemical properties, are used in fragrances:

alpha-Phellandrene: α-phellandrene occurs in Narrow-leaved peppermint, (Eucalyptus radiata).
beta-phellandrene: β-phellandrene occurs in oil of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), and in Perilla (Perilla frutescens).

It occurs in oil of Canada balsam.

See diagram Anthraquinone2: Phellandrene

Picrotoxins¶

Picrotoxins, C₃₀H₃₄O₁₃, sesquiterpene lactone source

Pinene¶

Pinene, C₁₀H₁₆, bicyclic monoterpene, alkene, pine needles aroma, and it occurs in Canarium. source

Pinene is the terpene in natural turpentine from conifers and in the essential oil of Rosemary.

α-Pinene, C₁₀H₁₆, 2-Pinene, clear colourless liquid, turpentine odour, less dense than water, insoluble in water, vapours heavier than air, used as a solvent source

It occurs in Pinus, and in Savory, (Satureja repandra).

A terpenoid, called a crystalline hydrate, C₆H₁₀(CH₃)₃(OH)₂), is formed from acidification of α-Pinene. source

β-Pinene, C₁₀H₁₆, much released in pine forests, and it occurs in Pinus, and Cumin (Cuminum cyminum). source

Enantiomer alpha-pinene more common in European pines, Enantiomers beta-pinene more common in North America pines.

Pinocamphone¶

Pinocamphone, C₁₀H₁₆O, monoterpene ketone, dark yellow liquid, aromatic, pleasant odour, in the alcoholic drink absinthe source

Drinking absinthe may lead to disorders of the nervous system

It occurs in Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis).

Piperitone¶

Piperitone, C₁₀H₁₆O, monoterpene ketone, a p-menthane monoterpenoid, cyclic terpene ketone, irritant, volatile oil component source

D-piperitone occurs in Mint (Mentha), and L-piperitone occurs in (Picea sitchensis).

Prenol¶

Prenol, C₅H₁₀O, 3-Methyl-2-buten-1-ol, has a fruit-like odour, and occurs in citrus, tomato, and in passionfruit. source

The Prenol hemiterpenoids, alcohols, carbon skeleton is one or more isoprene units.

Prilled¶

Prilled, pelletized, for machine-handled agricultural chemicals, e.g. prilled urea

Pulegone¶

Pulegone, C₁₀H₁₆O, monoterpene, natural pesticide, irritant, spearmint, fragrance and flavour ingredient, volatile oil component, mint taste biomarker source

It occurs in (Schizonepeta tenuifalia), Nepita, Mentha, (Hedeoma pulegioides), cornmint, orange mint, peppermint, and blackcurrant.

It is in essential oil of catnip, Nepeta cataria.

Putty¶

Prepare putty (glazier's putty, painter's putty), with calcium carbonate paste (whiting), + linseed oil (+ white lead).

Putty is used as a, filler in glazing, to seal glass into frames.

Pyrazine¶

Pyrazine, C₄H₄N₂, N2(C4H4), 1,4-diazine, heterocyclic aromatic organic compound source

It occurs in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and coffee (Coffea arabica).

The nutty tastes of roasted coconut is caused by pyrazines.

Pyrocatechuic acid¶

Pyrocatechuic acid, C₇H₄Br₂O₄, 4,5-Dibromo-o-pyrocatechuic acid source

It occurs in plasma after consumption of cranberry juice or aspirin, and it causes facial pain due to stress.

It occurs in (Phyllanthus acidus), and in aquatic fern (Salvinia molesta).

Platinum, Pt¶

Platinum, Pt

Platinum Table of Elements

Platinum, RSC

Platinum, Pt (Spanish plata silver, because platinum has silvery colour)

Platinum is a soft, ductile transition metal, resists most chemical agents, does not oxidize at high temperature, available as foil and has weak magnetism.

It occurs in free elemental form placer deposits or in alloys, and is used for electrical contacts electrodes and jewellery.

Platinum has no reaction with dilute HCl or H₂SO₄, air, water or concentrated oxidizing acids, e.g. HNO₃ or H₂SO₄ source

Platinum reacts with aqua regia, (concentrated HNO₃ + HCl) to form H₂PtCl₆. source

Platinum is malleable, ductile and can be cut into slices.

It has a slightly grey lustre.

It is harder than gold and silver, so it is mixed with those metals when making rings and other jewellery.

Platinum vessels can hold acids, because they do not react with them.

Platinum was used for decorative objects and jewellery settings, but now used in scientific apparatus, electrical equipment, and industrial processes as a catalyst.

Platinum black is used as a catalyst in chemical reactions.

Platinum can absorb hydrogen and is used in catalytic converters to treat exhaust gases of motor vehicles.

The melting point of platinum is 1768 oC, higher than gold, bronze and iron.

It was used to cast the platinum-iridium cylinder, the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK), in France, because of its high density and resistance to corrosion.

A "platinum" phonograph record has sold one million copies.

Atomic number =78, Relative atomic mass = 195.08, RD = 21.4, MP = 1769 oC, BP = 4530 oC

Platinum wire, 0.375 mm diameter, loop for inoculation of microbial cultures, possibly sensitizes skin, powder.

Platinum Group of Metals (PGMs), jewellery plating industry term for "4 PGM's,platinum, rhodium, osmium, ruthenium, iridium".

Platinum (IV) chloride. Platinum (IV) oxide

Platinum (IV) oxide, platinum dioxide, P₂O₂ source

Adams's catalyst, platinum oxide hydrate, PtO₂.H₂O, organic hydrogenation catalyst source

Platinum, Pt, (Spanish plata silver, platinum has silvery colour), platinum wire, 0.375 mm diameter, powder.

A plateium loop is used for for inoculation of microbial cultures, but it possibly sensitizes skin.

Platinum Group of Metals (PGMs), is the jewellery plating industry term for "4 PGM's, platinum, rhodium, osmium, ruthenium, iridium".

Chloroplatinic acid, H₂PtCl₆: Chloroplatinic acid source

Platinic chloride, chloroplatinic acid, Platinum (IV) chloride, Platinum (IV) oxide

Platinum, natural platinum: 35.2.54

Catalytic converter in a motor vehicle:

Catalytic oxidation of ammonia, with red-hot platinum wire: 3.3.4

Pyrogallol¶

Pyrogallol, C₆H₃(OH)₃, (1,2,3-trihydroxybenzene) source

Pyrogallol: 16.6.14

Germination and air, germination and the need for oxygen: 9.4.9

Tests for gases collected in a respirometer: 9.1.19

Toxicity, Poisons and First Aid: 1.0

Pyrrolines¶

Pyrrolines, C₄H₇N, Cyclic Amines, dihydropyrroles, isomers differ in position of double bond 1-Pyrroline (3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrrole), cyclic imine. source

It is colourless, less dense than water, soluble in water and alcohol, strong ammonia smell like shrimp seafood.

2-Pyrroline, cyclic amine, 3-Pyrroline, cyclic amine

Red phosphorus, P4¶

Red phosphorus, P₄ source

(Greek phosphoros Morning star) (Found by Henning Brand, Germany, 1669)

Lght from phosphorus is caused by combustion of oxides on its surface when exposed to air.

Red phosphorus, brown phosphorus, P₄, is not poisonous, ignites above 300 oC. source

It has phosphorus atoms bound in a covalent network, so is less reactive than white phosphorus and can be stored in air.

It is used in "safety match" striking surfaces that contain red phosphorus, powdered glass, carbon black, a binder and a neutralizer, e.g. calcium carbonate.

It is used for "doping" semiconductors.

Red phosphorus is relatively harmless compared with the white phosphorus allotrope.

However, some school systems do not allow red phosphorus to be used in school science experiments.

It is not poisonous when pure.

It is deliquescent, so keep it in a sealed container.

Do not heat red phosphorus in a test-tube, because it produces phosphorus vapour that condenses to form white phosphorus.

Red phosphorus forms violently explosive mixtures with oxidizing agents.

For example: metal nitrates (potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate, potassium permanganate), nitric acid, chlorates, perchlorates, peroxides, peroxy salts.

Do not heat red phosphorus on a platinum wire, because it corrodes the platinum.

P (red) Atomic number,15, Relative atomic mass,30.9738, RD 2.34, MP 590 oC, BP = 280 oC, Specific heat capacity,670 J kg-1 K-1

White phosphorus, P4¶

White phosphorus, P₄ source

White phosphorus (yellow phosphorus), P₄, is too reactive to be used in school science teaching, so it is not permitted in schools. source

In 1943, tonnes of white phosphorus in incendiary bombs were dropped by Allies' air forces on Hamburg, Germany.

White phosphorus is waxy, poisonous, spontaneously flammable, reacts with oxygen gas in the air to form P₂O₅, so it is stored under water. source

White phosphorus is extremely toxic.

On contact with iodine it ignites, with bromine it explodes, and it can be ignited with a hot glass rod.

Cover spilt white phosphorus with 0.2 M copper sulfate solution that converts it to harmless copper sulfide.

P (white) Atomic number,15, Relative atomic mass, 30.9738, RD. 1.82, MP = 44.2 oC, BP = 44 oC, Specific heat capacity,757 J kg-1 K-1

Purpureacin¶

Purpureacin-1, Bullatanocin, Bullatalicin, Squamostatin C, C₃₇H₆₆O₈, a polyketide, antifungal, insecticidal, and it occurs in leaves of (Annona purpurea). source

Pyridoxine¶

Pyridoxine, C₈H₁₁NO₃, Pyridoxol, Vitamin B6, are essential nutrients and animals must obtain it through their diet. source

Pyridoxine is converted to pyridoxal 5-phosphate, an important coenzyme for synthesis of amino acids, serotonin, and norepinephrine.

"Vitamin B6" is the term for pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine and their three phosphorylated derivatives, but "vitamin B6" is commonly used for pyridoxine.

Pyridoxine is used to treat vitamin B6 deficiency and commercial product "Diclectin" used to treat nausea and vomiting in pregnancy.

Commercial medicines may contain the following: "pyridoxine hydrochloride equivalent to pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)".

Pyrolysis¶

Pyrolysis is decomposition caused by heat.

It usually involves a chemical change caused by the application of heat.

Charcoal production is by cutting naturally growing trees and undergoing a process called pyrolysis, which involves heating wood in absence of oxygen.

A mixture of liquid, gas and charcoal is produced.

The process takes about 7 to 12 days in traditional kilns, where 8 to 12 kg of wood are used to produce 1 kg of charcoal.

The growing usage of charcoal suggests that greenhouse gas emissions associated with charcoal could reach 15 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide by 2050, which will be released into the atmosphere leading to climate change.

Phthalic acid¶

Phthalic acid, Phthalates

Phthalic acid C₈H₆O₄, C₆H₄(CO₂H)₂, benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid, formerly from naphthalene, aromatic dicarboxylic acid, has many isomers made by oxidation reaction using naphthalene + potassium permanganate or potassium dichromate. Phthalic anhydride, C₈H₄O₃, C₆H₄(CO)₂O, benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic anhydride, phthalandione, Toxic, strong skin irritant, used to produce phthalic esters, chemical plasticisers, plastics from vinyl chloride, large scale production to make plasticisers. Phthalates, C6H4(COOR1)(COOR2), esters of phthalic acid, [C₆H₄(COOH)₂], are used as chemical plasticizers and to make polymers and alkyd resins, and to soften polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and o make shower curtains, PVC piping and inflatable products. source

Alkyd resins are usually made from glycerol and phthalate anhydride for paint, car parts, electric switches and insulators, electronic components and television parts.

Phthalates are not chemically bound to the plastics they are added to, so they may be continuously released to the air as plastics harden over time.

Their use is being phased out in some countries, because of concern about possible risk to foetuses and young children.

See diagram 16.13.8chd: Dimethyl phthalate

While some phthalates such as DEHP are now banned for certain products, they could still be having an effect as they degrade slowly.

Even very small amounts of phthalates have been shown to interact with other toxins and have cumulative effects.

DEHP was banned in Australia in 2011 for certain products, including children's toys (less than 36 months of age), and eating utensils.

DEHP, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate, [dioctyl phthalate, DOP], C₆H₄(C₈H₁₇COO)₂, it the most common phthalate plasticizer. source

DBP, dibutyl phthalate, C₁₆H₂₂O₄, banned in cosmetics in EU, is a uspected endocrine disruptor. source

DiNP di-isononyl phthalate, C₂₆H₄₂O₄, has EU restriction. source

Avoid plastic containers and bottles with the recycling codes 1, 3, 6 or 7.

If they have no number, avoid those by checking the bottom of the product for the number in a triangle.

These are the typical plastics to avoid:

Recycling code 1 are PET (polyethylene terephthalate): Found in water bottles, soft drink bottles.

Recycling code 3 are PVC (polyvinyl chloride): Found in cling film, food packaging, cooking oil bottles and toys.

Recycling code 6 are PS (polystyrene) Found in disposable plates /cups / trays, egg cartons and takeaway containers.

Recycling code 7 are PC (polycarbonate) and others found in baby bottles, large water containers.

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