Chemistry Experiments, B¶

Baking soda, NaHCO₃, bicarbonate of soda, sodium bicarbonate, sodium hydrogencarbonate, "sodium bicarb", "bicarb soda", "bicarbonate", "bicarb", (Na+ + HCO₃−) source

Experiments

Baking powder: 19.1.9, (See 8.)

Baking powder: 3.3.4

Dancing naphthalene mothballs: 3.3.2

Decomposition of hydrogencarbonates: 3.7.8

Dilute acids with sodium hydrogencarbonate: 12.4.13

Hydrolysis of sodium hydrocarbonate: 12.10.6

Heat sodium hydrocarbonate: 12.15.7

Prepare baking powder: 19.1.12

Prepare self-raising flour: 19.1.9, Wheat and flour, (See: 7.)

Prepare carbon dioxide: 3.4.0

Prepare "volcanos" with baking soda: 12.15.8

Simulated boiling, sodium hydrocarbonate: 3.4.7

Soda-acid fire extinguisher: 3.3.1

Tests for bicarbonates: 12.11.4

Baking powder

Formerly, bakers added sodium bicarbonate and sour milk, lactic acid, to bread dough to make bread rise as carbon dioxide gas bubbles formed during baking.

Later, dry cream of tartar, K(C4H5O6, from the wine industry was substituted for sour milk to make a dry mixture.

Later, calcium acid phosphate, CaHPO₄, was substituted for cream of tartar. source

Nowadays, corn-starch or rice flour is added to keep the mixture dry.

Legally, baking powder is a mixture of sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO₃, with cream of tartar, tartaric acid, acid phosphate or sodium aluminium phosphate. source

However, it can be or any combination of the mixture, but without any farinaceous (wheat) substance, so it can be labelled "gluten free".

It must yield >10% of carbon dioxide and may contain permitted colouring substance.

Baking powder contains compounds called food aerators, to be added to dough to make it rise during cooking as bubbles of carbon dioxide gas form.

Baking powder can be used as a substitute for yeast, which is used in sour dough.

Phosphoric acid is weakly acidic and has low toxicity, so some baking powders contain NaH₂PO₄ and NaHCO₃ for the leavening action of the acid-base reaction. source

Baking powder components

The "baking powder" bought in shops often contains the following four components:

1. A leavening agent as a sources of carbon dioxide (dry solids).

* Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO₃, reacts with an acid, e.g. lactic acid, from sour milk, to form carbon dioxide. source

The heat from the oven helps the decomposition of sodium hydrogen carbonate to form carbon dioxide.

* or ammonium hydrogen carbonate.

For example, Borwick's Baking Powder" contains wheat flour, acid sodium pyrophosphate (disodium dihydrogen diphosphate) Na₂H₂P₂O₇ sodium bicarbonate E500. source

2. A solid acid that reacts with the sodium bicarbonate only when moist, e.g. tartaric acid or hydrogen carbonates, (cream of tartar, potassium hydrogen tartrate")

3. Phosphates to replace cream of tartar

Acid phosphates, e.g. calcium hydrogen phosphate (calcium acid phosphate, CaHPO4 sodium dihydrogen phosphate V (sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate)
Phosphate aerators, e.g. food additive E450 Diphosphates (Sodium and potassium phosphates) food additive E541, sodium aluminium phosphate, basic (emulsifier, acidity regulator)

4. Rice flour or cornflour to keep the mixture dry

If baking powder contains 36% phosphate aerators, it could contain about 10% aluminium.

5. Baking powder must be stored dry

Mix the leavening agent baking soda, sodium bicarbonate, with acidic ingredients to make it work in cooking.

However, baking powder contains baking soda and a powdered acid, so it can work without other acidic ingredients.

For example, "Anchor" brand Baking Powder, Fremantle, Western Australia

Ingredients, Wheaten cornflour, baking powder (mineral salts 339, 341, 450, 500)

6. Baking powder acid components

Baking powders contain a solid crystal acids, baking soda alkali and ground dry starch desiccant and bulking agent.

The sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts immediately when moist to form carbon dioxide.

Single acting baking powders contain sodium bicarbonate, and coated MCP.

They are activated by moisture, so bake immediately after mixing.

Double acting baking powders contain sodium bicarbonate, MCP and SAS.

They react in two phases and can stand for a while before baking.

Double action baking powder contains baking soda, a "high temperature acid", e.g. cream of tartar, and corn-starch or potato starch drying agent.

Each component acid has a different pattern of carbon dioxide production:

Cream of tartar, potassium hydrogen tartrate, K(C4H5O6)
Tartaric acid, C4H6O6, HO2CCH(OH)CH(OH)CO2H
Cream of tartar, potassium bitartrate, potassium hydrogen tartrate, KC4H5O6
Monocalcium phosphate, MCP, Ca(H2PO4)2.H2O
Sodium acid pyrophosphate, SAPP, disodium pyrophosphate, disodium dihydrogen diphosphate, Na2H2P2O7
Sodium aluminium sulfate, SAS, soda alum, sodium alum, NaAl(SO4)2.12H2O, Na2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O
Sodium aluminium phosphate, SALP, NaAlPO4, E541
Dimagnesium phosphate, DMP, MgHPO4.3H2O
Dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, DCPD, CaHPO4.2H2O, dicalcium phosphate

Experiments

1. Put baking powder into water and note whether carbon dioxide gas forms.

2. Put sodium bicarbonate into water and note whether carbon dioxide forms.

3. Put baking powder in a test-tube containing vinegar (acetic acid, ethanoic acid) or lemon juice (citric acid) and note whether carbon dioxide forms.

4. Make self-raising flour.

Mix two teaspoons of Anchor baking powder to one cup of Anchor Lighthouse plain flour.

Sift several times.

Use a dry teaspoon.

Barium, Ba¶

Barium, Ba

Barium, Table of Elements

Barium, RSC

Barium, Ba, (Greek barus 'heavy'), alkaline earth metal, Highly toxic if ingested or by skin contact.

Barium ion, Ba2+, Barium meal, barium sulfate radio-opaque mixture for X-ray examination of alimentary tract.

Barium is brittle and expensive, used to absorb high energy particles, burns with green colour in fireworks.

It occurs in minerals barytes, BaSO₄, and witherite, BaCO₃. source

It forms poisonous compounds, oxidizes in air and reacts with ethanol.

Barium sulfate is used for a contrast medium for X-ray examination of intestines.

Surface coating of barium hydroxide corrosive to the eyes.

The reaction of barium with water produces flammable hydrogen gas.

Barium is very difficult to cut.

Atomic number: 56, Relative atomic mass: 137.33, RD 3.51, MP = 725 oC, BP = 1640 oC.

Specific heat capacity: 192 J kg-1 K-1.

Barium compounds

Barium toxicity: 4.2

Tests for barium: 12.11.3.13

Barium compounds¶

Barium carbonate, BaCO₃ source

Barium chloride, BaCl₂, barium chloride dihydrate, barium chloride anhydrous source

Barium chromate, BaCrO₄ source

Barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)₂ source

Barium hydroxide monohydrate, Ba(OH)₂.H₂O source

Barium oxide, BaO, baryta, heavy spar, flux for craft, optical crown glass, cathode ray tube, lubricating oil

Barium peroxide, BaO₂, barium dioxide, bleaching agent source

Barium sulfate, (VI), BaSO₄ source

Barium sulfide, Harmful if ingested, Solution < 25% Not hazardous

Baryta, barium oxide or barium hydroxide

Barytes, BaSO₄, barite, heavy spar, mineral source

elsian, BaAl₂Si₂O₈, barium feldspar source

Witherite, BaCO₃, barium carbonate source

Reactions of barium compounds: 12.4.1

Barium carbonate, BaCO3¶

Barium carbonate, BaCO₃ source

Barium carbonate (HARM 1564), witherite, in lead ore veins, Solution < 25%, Not hazardous

Barium carbonate pigment (White 10) is a pigment of significant toxicity.

Barium carbonate, is used for craft, barium oxide flux, Low cost, from pottery supply stores.

Barium carbonate, Dimorphism, aragonite: 35,6,2

Barium chloride¶

Barium chloride, BaCl₂, Harmful if ingested (HARM 1564), barium chloride-2-water, BaCl₂.2H₂O source

Barium chloride dihydrate, BaCl₂.2H₂O, colourless, rhombic, odourless crystals or white granules, m.p. 925 oC source

Barium chloride, AAS Solution, For 0.1 M solution, 24.4 g in 1 L water

Common ion effect: 17.5.4

Barium chloride, Solution < 1%, Not Hazardous, analytical reagent

Experiments

1. Add calcium sulfate solution to barium chloride solution.

Heat the solution and leave to cool.

Note the white precipitate of barium sulfate that is insoluble in water.

Ba2+ + SO₄₂^- → BaSO₄ (s) source

2. Add ammonium carbonate solution to barium chloride solution.

Note the white precipitate of barium carbonate.

Ba2+ + CO₃₂^- → BaCO₃ (s) source

3. Add ammonium oxalate solution to barium chloride solution.

Note the white precipitate of barium oxalate that is soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, but insoluble in acetic acid.

Ba2+ + C₂O₄₂^- → Ba(C2O4)(s) source

4. Add potassium chromate solution to barium chloride solution.

Note the yellow precipitate of barium chromate.

Ba2+ + CrO₄₂ → BaCrO₄ (s) source

Barium chromate¶

Barium chromate, BaCrO₄, yellow powder, S.G. 4.49, insoluble in water, Extremely toxic if ingested, carcinogenic source

Barium chromate, Solution < 1%, Not Hazardous

Barium chromate, for craft, pyrotechnics, paint pigment, corrosion control, safety matches

Barium chromate pigment (Yellow 31), extremely toxic and carcinogenic

Barium hydroxide¶

Barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)₂, barium hydroxide octahydrate, barium hydroxide hydrated, Ba(OH)₂.8H₂O, baryta water, caustic baryta, Harmful if ingested source

Barium hydroxide, Solution < 1%, Not Hazardous

Ba(OH)₂, barium hydroxide solution, (baryta water) source

Ionization of barium hydroxide: 12.13.7

Barium nitrate¶

Barium nitrate, Ba(NO₃)₂, nitrobarite, oxidizing, white solid, toxic, accelerates burning of combustinle materials may explode if heated source

Barium sulfate (VI)¶

Barium sulfate (VI), BaSO₄, barytes, barite, heavy spar, blanc fixe pigment extender in paints source

Barium sulfate (VI), barium white, blanc-fixe, fixed white, permanent white, barytes, heavy spar

Barium sulfate, almost insoluble in water, heavy white precipitate, X-ray contrast meal, soil analysis, lake paint

Barium sulfate pigment (White 21) is a pigment of significant toxicity.

Bases¶

Bases, properties of bases, alkalis: 12.1.0

Hardness in water, water hardness: 12.2.0

Prepare dilute bases: 5.4.8

Prepare acids, dilute acids and bases (Safety instructions): 3.4.10

Bases

A base or an alkali is a good electrolyte, that turns red litmus blue and has a slippery feel.

Bases with water form hydroxide ions, OH-.

Bases react with hydrogen ions, H+.

A base is a proton acceptor (H+). (Bronsted-Lowry definition).

Basic oxides¶

Basic oxides react with water to form a base.

Basic oxides react with an acid to form a salt and water.

Basic oxides + acid → salt + water source

MgO (s) + H₂SO₄ (aq) → MgSO₄ (aq) + H₂O (l) source

Basic oxides are oxides of metals.

Basic oxides are usually insoluble in water.

Soluble basic oxides + water → alkaline solution source

Basic oxides do not react with bases.

Experiments

Alkalis with basic oxides, copper oxide: 12.1.6

Dilute acids with basic oxides: 12.4.3

Reactions of oxides: 12.13.0

Separate to metals by reduction of metal oxides: 10.10.0

Bauxite¶

E173 Aluminium (from bauxite) (colour, metallic) (Banned in some countries), (excess unsafe)

Aluminium, properties: 13.0.0

Aluminium oxide: 13.1.10

Aluminium hydroxide (1-water), bauxite (antacids) 500 g

Bauxite: 35.2.11

Bauxite: 10.10.0

Bauxite digestion: 13.2.2

Portland cement: 34.2.2

Beef¶

Beef extract, powder, desiccated beef, culture medium for microbiology, "Bacto", (not "Bovril", a yeast extract)

17.7.16, Hydrogen peroxide with catalase in raw beef liver

Beer¶

12.2.0, Beverage can, Beer can

Foams: 7.8.10

Fermentation: 4.1.9, (Safety)

Ginger beer "plant": 9.7.2, (Biollogy)

Isohumulone: 16.2.3

Yeast, fermentation, brewing. beer: 16.7.3

1 barrel (beer cask) = 32 imperial gallons

Smilax regelii, Smilacaceae, sarsaparilla, Honduras sarsaparilla, (sarsaparilla soft drink and root beer), herbal medicine

Sodium metabisulfite, sterilizing Campden tablets, used for home beer-making and wine-making, food preservative

Beeswax¶

Beeswax, C15H31COO(C30H61, (white beeswax)

Beeswax, Local Purchase, is used for best quality wax candles and applications to floors.

Beeswax

5.5.8 creams and ointments

E901, Beeswax, glazing agent

9.2, Egg preservation, (See: 8.)

16.6.2a, List of fixed oils

19.1.16, Glazing agents, food additives

8.1.24 beeswax candles

Benzfuran¶

Benzfuran, C₈H₆O, coumarone, from processed coal, in coumarone-indene resin plastic, citrus coating. source

Benzonitrile¶

Benzonitrile, C₆H₅CN, almond odour, harmful if ingested source

It occurs in (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi).

Benzoin¶

Benzoin, organic chemical, ketone, (C₁₄H₁₂O₂). C₆H₅COCH(OH)C₆H₅ source

It is used as a colour additive for marking fruit and vegetables.

Benzoin resin, "gum benzoin", "gum Benjamin", but it is not a polysaccharide "gum".

It contains benzoic acid, C₆H₅COOH, not benzoin, C₁₄H₁₂O₂, and it is used in perfumes and folk remedies. source

It occurs in Styrax.

Benzophenone¶

Benzophenone, C₁₃H₁₀O, C6H5)2CO, diphenyl methanone, harmful if ingested, can cause cancer, the simplest benzophenone source

It is a photosensitizing agent, and other benzophenones are sunscreens.

Behenyl alcohol¶

Behenyl alcohol, C₂₂H₄₆O, 1-docosanol, long chain primary aliphatic alcohol, antiviral activity. source

It is used for non-prescription topical treatment of recurrent herpes simplex (cold sores).

It occurs in Populus and Hypericum.

Benomyl¶

Benomyl, C₁₄H₁₈N₄O₃, was previously a widely-used fungicide, Benlate, DuPont ceased production in 2001 source

Benzamide¶

Benzamide, C₆H₅CONH₂, C₇H₇NO, alkaloid source

harmful if ingested, off-white colour crystals, slightly soluble in water.

It occurs in Berberis, Sarcomelicope and Houttuynia.

Bergamotene

Bergamotene, C₁₅H₂₄, sesquiterpene, polycyclic olefin, contains volatile oils, pale green clear liquid, woody odour, but not used for fragrance or flavour. source

It occurs in Kumquat (Citrus japonica), Key lime (Citrus x aurantifolia), Citron (Citrus medica), Carrot (Daucus carota), and in Bergamot (Monarda didyma).

Bezoar¶

A bezoar is any mass accumulating in the gastrointestinal system, e.g. a food bolus.

Stones found in the stomach or gall bladder of animals were formerly set as jewels.

Behenic acid¶

Behenic acid, C₂₂H₄₄O₂, 1-Docosanoic acid, is a straight-chain very long-chain saturated fatty acid. source

It occurs in ben oil from drumstick tree, (Moringa oleifera), Moringaceae.

BCIP-dipotassium salt¶

BCIP-dipotassium salt, C₈H₄BrClNO₄PNa₂, bromochloroindolyl phosphate, used in chromogenic enzyme experiments source

Benzalkonium chloride¶

Benzalkonium, C₂₂H₄₀N⁺, ('Zephiran') source

Benzalkonium chloride, C₁₃H₂₂ClN, benzethonium chloride, Phemeride, Quatrachlor, Hyamine, BAK, aromatic ether, chloride salt, corrosive, acute toxic source

It is a synthetic quaternary ammonium salt, antiseptic, disinfectant, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, odourless white crystals or powder, very bitter taste, 1% solution in water slightly alkaline.

catatonic surfactant, in pharmaceutical and personal care products, surfactant, (in trade name, Zephiran)

Zephiran, C₂₇H₄₂NO₂.Cl or C₂₇H₄₂ClNO₂ or, (C6H5CH2N(CH3)2R, (where R = mostly n-(C₁₂H₂₅), benzethonium chloride, antiseptic. source

Benzaldehyde¶

Benzaldehyde, C₆H₅CHO, benzenecarbaldehyde, Harmful by all routes source

Aromatic aldehydes and ketones: 16.2.7

Benzaldehyde, Solution < 25%, Not hazardous

Cyclic aldehydes, Prefix, formyl-, Suffix, -carbaldehyde, attached to benzene, benzaldehyde

Cinnamic acid, C₉H₁₀O₂ source

It occurs in True cinnamon, (Cinnamomum verum), Lauraceae

Uroblilinogen, test

Benzene¶

Benzene, C₆H₆, benzol, benzine, sweet smell, highly flammable Extremely toxic by all routes, carcinogenic, Not permitted in schools source

See diagram 16.1.1hch: Benzene, Octane ratings

See 16.6.14: Pyrogallol, Benzene-1,2,3-triol

Benzene-1,3,5-triol, Phloroglucinol:

Benzene, Arenes: 16.5.0

Halogenation of benzene: 12.4.6.1

Experiments

Reactions of chlorine with benzene: 12.4.6.0

Reactions of benzene: 16.5.3

Size of carbon atom in stearic acid molecule: 11.3.5

Benzoic acid¶

Benzoic acid, C₆H₅COOH source

Benzoic acid

See diagram: E210, Benzoic acid

Aromatic acids: 16.2.5

Crystal growth with overhead projector: 24.10.8

Extraction of caffeine and benzoic acid from soft drinks: 9.2.3

Isolation of benzoic acid in lemonade: 9.1.9

Gum benjamin tree, (Styrax benzoin), Styracaceae, benzoin gum resin called "Benzoin Sumatra" from tapped bark.

Primary ingredient of benzoin resin is benzoic acid, not benzoin, C₁₄H₁₂O₂. source

Benzoyl chloride, C6H5COCl¶

Benzoyl chloride, C₆H₅COCl source

Benzoyl group C₆H₅CO^-, benzenecarbonyl group source

Benzoyl chloride, benzenecarbonyl chloride, Highly toxic by all routes, flammable, highly corrosive

Benzoyl chloride, reacts violently with some metals, e.g. iron

Benzoyl peroxide, C14H10O4¶

Benzoyl peroxide, C₁₄H₁₀O₄ source

Benzoyl peroxide, dibenzoyl peroxide, Harmful skin contact, flammable, Not permitted in schools

Benzoyl peroxide, Solution < 20%, Not hazardous

Benzyl acetate, C9H10O2¶

Benzyl acetate, C₉H₁₀O₂ source

Benzyl, benzyl group, C₆H₅CH₂^- source

Benzyl acetate, ester from benzyl alcohol + acetic acid, in essential oils of Jasmine, (Jasmium officinale)

It occurs in Ylang ylang, (Cananga odorata), Annonaceae

It is used in cosmetics, attracts bees, and organic solvent.

Benzyl alcohol, C6H5CH2OH¶

Benzyl alcohol, C₆H₅CH₂OH source

Benzyl alcohol, "BnOH", C₆H₅CH₂OH, phenylmethanol, phenyl carbinol, colourless, solvent, pleasant odour source

Benzyl alcohol, harmful if ingested

Benzyl alcohol, Solution < 20% Not hazardous

Benzyl bromide, C7H7Br¶

Benzyl bromide, C₇H₇Br source

Benzyl bromide, α-bromotoluene, Highly toxic by all routes, bromotoluene

Benzyl bromide, Solution < 20% Not hazardous

Benzyl chloride, α-chlorotoluene, Highly toxic by all routes

Benzyl chloride, Solution < 20% Not hazardous

Benzyl penicillin sodium salt, penicillin G, antibiotic

Berkelium, Bk¶

Berkelium, Bk

Berkelium, Table of the Elements

See: Berkelium, RSC

Berkelium, Bk, (Berkeley University, USA, where first made), radioactive actinoid

Beryllium, Be¶

Beryllium, Be

Beryllium, Table of the Elements

See: Beryllium, RSC

Beryllium, Be (Greek bērullos 'beryl'), (glucinium), lightest alkaline earth metal

Pure beryllium is a hard, brittle, silvery metal.

Beryllium metal exposed to air forms a protective oxide coating, similar to aluminium.

Beryllium reacts with strong acids and strong bases, and forms shock sensitive mixtures with chlorinated solvents, e.g. carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethylene.

Beryllium metal, flakes, powder, Highly toxic, Not permitted in schools

Beryllium slowly oxidizes in air, tastes like sugar, beryllium powder destroys lung tissue, toxic compounds.

Beryllium chunks, Beryllium standard for AAS, Beryllium ICP/DCP standard solution

Beryl, Be₃Al₂(SiO₃)₆, beryllium aluminium silicate, beryllium ore, green beryl is emerald and blue-green beryl is aquamarine. source

Emerald, Be₃Al₂(SiO₃)₆, natural emeralds always contain weakening inclusions, but not if produced from seed crystal. source

Beryllium chloride, fluoride, nitrate, phosphate, and sulfate all soluble in water, insoluble, e.g. beryl, beryllium oxide.

Beryllium-copper alloy has high strength, and good thermal and electrical conductivity.

Beryllium chloride, BeCl₂, white to faintly yellow powder, deliquescent, Toxic, Not permitted in schools. source

Beryllium oxide, BeO, beryllia, bromellite, white powder, very good heat conductor and good electrical insulator

Betagarin, C18H16O6¶

Betagarin, C₁₈H₁₆O₆ source

Betagarin, a flavanone, a dimethoxyflavanone, anti-fungal, a phytoalexin

It occurs in fungus infected sugar beet, (Beta vulgaris).

Beta-sitosterol, C29H50O¶

Beta-sitosterol, C₂₉H₅₀O source

Beta-sitosterol, phytosterol like cholesterol, oestrogenic activity, inhibits proliferation of human leukemia cells reducing serum cholesterol levels

It is used for natural prostate health. reduce the growth of human prostate and colon cancer cells.

It occurs in human leukemia cells, vegetable oils, nuts, and in avocado

Betulinic acid

Betulinic acid, C₃₀H₄₈O₃, pentacyclic triterpenoid, mairin, lupatic acid, betulone, isobrucein, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, anti-HIV. source

It induces apoptosis through induction of changes in mitochondrial membrane, cytotoxic against non-melanoma tumor cell types, has a cardiovascular role.

It occurs in white birch bark (Betula alba), Ber tree (Ziziphus mauritiana), (Triphyophyllum peltatum), (Diospyros leucomelas). and in (Syzygium formosanum).

Bird lime

Birdlime, bird lime, comes from the inner bark of holly mistletoe or elm branches, boiled, then evaporated, to form a sticky substance.

It is used to trap small birds, but its use is illegal in many countries.

Birdlime is not "lime", calcium oxide.

In the South Pacific region, the latex of the breadfruit plant (Artocarpus altilis) was formerly used as birdlime to catch birds.

Bilobol¶

Bilobol, C₂₇H₅₀O₂Si₂, a 5-alkenylresorcinol, phenolic lipid, like Urushiol it is a strong skin irritant. source

Bismuth, Bi¶

Bismuth, Bi

Bismuth, Table of the Elements

See: Bismuth, RSC

Bismuth, Bi (Latin bismutum), bismuth mineral, natural bismuth has, cubic crystals.

The most common isotope (Bismuth-209) is radioactive and has one of the longest half-life.

Bismuth is harmful if ingested.

Granular fine particles are easily ignited, easily fusible natural bismuth, "hopper crystals", in staircase crystalline patterns.

Iridescent artificial bismuth crystals have a hollow centres, and MP 271 oC.

Pink-white metallic crystals, from bismuthinite mineral Bi₂S₃ and niccolite, cobaltite, are rare in the earth. source

It is very diamagnetic, so may levitate with strong magnets.

It has low thermal conductivity, high electrical resistance, burns in air with blue flame and emits yellow fumes, expands when freezes.

It is used in low melting point alloys for fire safety equipment, thermocouples, magnetic flux measurement, nuclear reactors coolant.

Low toxicity so used in cosmetics and medicines, e.g. bismuth subsalicylate, active ingredient in "Pepto-Bismol", for peptic ulcers.

It is used in paints, dyes, pewter, and "dragon's eggs" fireworks, and as a posible non-toxic alternative to lead.

Atomic number: 83, Relative atomic mass: 208.98, RD 9.78, MP = 271.3 oC, BP = 1560 oC.

Specific heat capacity: 123 J kg-1 K-1.

Bismuth

Bismuth compounds

Bismuth (III) chloride, BiCl₃, bismuth chloride, bismuth trichloride, is harmful if ingested. source

Bismuth chloride, For 0.17 M solution, 53 g in 1 litre of dilute HCl, 1 part concentrated HCl to 5 parts water.

Bismuth (III) nitrate pentahydrate, BiN₃O₉.5H₂O source

Bismuth nitrate, Bi(NO₃)₃.5H₂O, For 0.083 M solution, 40 g in 1 litre of dilute HNO₃, 1 part concentrated HNO₃ to 5 parts water. source

Bismuth oxide, Bi₂O₃, bismuth (III) oxide, bismuth (V) oxide, bismite mineral, bismuth ochre, Harmful ingested source

Bismuth (III) subsalicylate, C₇H₅BiO₄ source

Black tongue can be seen commonly amongst people who consume "Pepto-Bismol" drug, which consists of bismuth subsalicylate, a dark color-imparting chemical.

Although it is originally bright pink in colour.

This is not harmful, however, the black colored tongue itself may look frightening!

Bismuthinite, bismuth trisulfide, bismuth sulfide crystal, mineral

Bismutite, bismuthyl carbonate, bismuth subcarbonate, Bi₂(CO₃)O₂, mineral source

Hydrolysis of bismuth chloride: 17.5.6

Radioactive decay of Bismuth-214: 7.3.5

Reactions of Bi compounds: 12.5.1

Tests for bismuth, Heat: 12.12.11.3.8, (See 3.)

Tests for bismuth, Thiourea: 12.11.3.14

Bimetalism¶

Bimetalism is an historical system of two metals, e.g. gold and silver, to be used as legal tender at a fixed ratio between them.

Bisabolol¶

Bisabolol, C₁₅H₂₆O, sesquiterpene (bisabolane), natural monocyclic sesquiterpene alcohol, essential oils from leaves alpha-bisabolol are used for skin healing. source

It occurs in leaves of (Hymenocrater yazdianus), and is extracted from Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla).

Bixin¶

Bixin, C₂₅H₃₀O₄, xanthophyll carotenoid pigment, diterpene, yellow to pink, causes, allergic-type reactions, hyperactivity, head banging, skin irritation. source

It is used as body paint, fabric dye pigment, soluble in fats and alcohols, insoluble in water.

Annatto food additive | peppery aroma and flavour.

Annatto is a natural food colouring, but linked with food-related allergies, "all natural" or "no artificial colours", Annatto, (Roucou).

derivative of achiote trees, tropical Americas, aroma and flavour slightly peppery with some nutmeg.

It occurs in seeds of the achiote tree, lipstick tree (Bixa orellana), and in the spice blend "Sazn".

E160b

Butan-1-ol¶

. 1-butanol, butyl alcohol, C₄H₉OH, C₄H₁₀O, CH₃(CH₂)₃OH, CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂OH. source

It is a primary alcohol, a short-chain primary fatty alcohol, flammable, irritant and it is used as a solvent.

It occurs in human gut microbes, and in Vitis and Cichorium.

Biochar, C¶

Biochar, C

Biochar is charcoal produced from plant matter to be stored in the soil to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Biochar is carbon said to to increase water capture, pH balance, soil microbe content.

It is used in Australia is to provide digestive assistance for livestock animals’ feed efficiency and sequestering animals’ carbon-laden manures using dung beetles.

The beetles may naturally improve soils’ ability to hold water and support pasture growth, potentially reducing the need for additional fertiliser and irrigation.

Biphenyl¶

Biphenyl, (1,1-biphenyl), C₁₂H₁₀, C₆H₅C₆H₅, phenylbenze, xenene, colourless, most thermally stable organic source

It is a clear colorless liquid, pleasant odour. insoluble in water.

It occurs naturally in coal, crude oil, and natural gas.

It is used as an antimicrobial food preservative, and was used as a fungicide for citrus crops, but caused eye and skin irritation and toxic effects on the organs.

Bleach¶

Bleach flowers with sulfur dioxide: 13.10.5

Bleaches, disinfectants, deodorizers: 12.5.2

Detergents in washing powders: 12.5.3

Bleaches in detergents: 12.3.5.3.2

Bleaching agents: 19.1.5

Bleaching powder: 12.4.6

Calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)₂ source

Prepare chlorine with bleaching powder: 12.4.1.1

Reaction of ethyl alcohol with bleaching powder: 16.1.10

Sodium chlorate, NaClO₃ source

Sodium hydrogen sulfite, sodium bisulfite, NaHSO₃ source

Sodium hypochlorite, NaClO

Tests for chlorine: 3.40.1, (See: 1. Bleaching test for chlorinr)

Bohrium, Bh¶

Bohrium, Bh

Bohrium, Table of the Elements

Bohrium, RSC

Bohrium, Bh, (Neils Bohr, 1885-1962, Denmark), radioactive, transuranic, produced from high energy atomic collisions

Borax¶

Borax, (Na₂B₄O₇.10H₂O), disodiumtetraborate-10-water, E285, sodium tetraborate decahydrate source

The sold borax is partially dehydrated di-sodium tetraborate, colourless mineral, white powder, odourless.

Its monoclinic crystals or granules, rd 1.73, mp 75 oC, are efflorescent in dry air, anhydrous at 320 oC

It is mildly toxic,so avoid ingesting and skin contact.

Borax is soluble in water and glycerol, very slightly soluble in alcohol and insoluble in acids.

Sodium tetraborate decahydrate, Na₂B₄O₇.10H₂O, powder, granules source

Borax is used in buffer solutions, fire retardants, metallurgy flux, washing powders, bath cleaning, fungicide, insecticide, detergent booster.

Borax is used in the furniture industry as a polish.

Sodium tetraborate borax preservative is not allowed in most countries, because it is toxic and may cause skin problems.

Borax and sugar mixture is used with cut lemon over ant trails to deter ants.

Borax di-sodium tetraborate (III)-10-water Local Purchase.

E285 (preservative, not allowed in most countries), Harmful if ingested.

Sodium tetraborate decahydrate, For 0.1 M solution, 38 g in 1 L water.

Low cost, from supermarkets as borax, borax-bead test preparations for metal ions.

Clean silver plate with borax and soap solution.

Borax is used in buffer solutions, fire retardants, metallurgy flux, washing powders (laundry booster), bath cleaning, fungicide, insecticide, detergent booster.

Borax used a lot in the furniture industry as a polish.

Sodium tetraborate borax preservative is not allowed in most countries, because it is toxic and may cause skin problems.

Borax and sugar mixture is used with cut lemon over ant trails to deter ants.

Borax di-sodium tetraborate (III)-10-water Local Purchase.

Experiments

Borax, Experiment

Borax mineral: 35.2.14

Bases in the kitchen and laundry: 19.3.1

Bath cleaning: 19.3.2

Tests for borax / turmeric adulteration of food: 19.1.32

Borax bead test for metals¶

Heated borax fuses to form clear glass that can dissolve metal oxides to give characteristic colours of the borax bead test.

The test depend on the colours of metal oxides in metallic salts and minerals when heated.

Coil the end of a platinum wire to prepare a loop big enough to curl around a match stick.

Heat the loop in a Bunsen burner flame then dip the hot loop in borax powder, Na₂B₄O₇.10H₂O. source

Heat the attached borax in the hottest part of the flame

The borax swells to lose water of crystallization, then shrinks and fuses to form a transparent bead filling the loop of the platinum wire.

Dip the bead in water then in a very small amount of the metal salt that sticks to the bead.

Heat the bead and metal salt in either the outer oxidizing flame or inner reducing flame of the Bunsen burner.

The colour of the bead depends on:

whether using the outer colourless oxidizing flame or the inner blue reducing flame,

the type of flame used,

whether the bead is examined bead hot or cold,

the degree of saturation if using solutions,

the temperature of the bead when examined,

and the concentration of the solution if a solution of salt is used instead of the solid salt.

Other procedures

Use a white ceramic tile of saucer instead of platinum wire and microsmic salt, instead of borax.

[Microsmic salt, sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate, (Na(NH₄)HPO₄.4H₂O) from urine] Use sodium carbonate, Na₂CO₃, for the bead test, but the colours may be different. source

For most metals not listed below, the flame is colourless.

Table 12.11.3.1

Solid metal salt	Oxidizing flame	Oxidizing flame	Reducing flame	Reducing flame
.	Hot	Cold	Hot	Cold
Chromium	yellow to emerald-green	green	green	green
Cobalt	deep blue	blue	blue	blue
Copper	light blue-green	blue	.	red-brown
Gold	rose-violet	rose-violet	red	violet
Iron	brown when hot yellow when cold	yellow	green	green
Manganese	violet	amethyst	.	.
Nickel	violet to brown	red-brown	grey	grey
Tungsten	pale yellow	.	green	blue

Boric acid, H3BO3¶

Boric acid, H₃BO₃ source

Boric acid, ionization reaction: 12.3.4

Decomposition of boric acid: 3.7.2

Prepare boric acid crystals: 3.1.2

Boric acid, boracic acid, Toxic if ingested

Boric acid, orthoboric acid, trioxyboric (III) acid, colourless, odourless, white to transparent, triclinic crystals, m.p. about 160 oC

If heated, boric acid decomposes to anhydride B₂O₃ and occurs near fumaroles. source

It is sold in pure form as a powder, as eye medicine, disinfectant, insecticide, E284.

Use boric acid to prepare children's clothing flame retardants.

Common names, Boric acid, "cockroach killer".

Boric acid, orthoboric acid, trioxoboric acid (III) acid, boracic acid, sassolite, H₃BO₃, weak acid, weakly acidic hydrate of boric oxide, odourless white solid, MP 171 °C, astringent, mild antiseptic, antifungal, antiviral, used to treat of yeast infections and cold sores, white to colourless triclinic crystals. source

It occurs in volcanic steam vents, slightly soluble in cold water.

It is used to make borosilicate glass, used in buffer solutions, detergents and in pharmacy, e.g. "boracic powder" for eye infections.

Action of continuous heat: H₃BO₃ → HBO₂ metaboric acid + water source

Experiment

Boric acid dissolves in hot water.

Leave to cool and see fine white crystals form.

Bornane¶

Bornane, C₁₀H₁₈, bornylane, monoterpene, crystalline, saturated, "parent compound" of borneol and camphor It occurs in (Cinnamomum camphora). source

Borneol¶

Borneol, C₁₀H₁₈O, bicyclic monoterpene, Borneo camphor, white lump, strongly aromatic camphor-like odour, spicy cooling scent, pungent, bitter, tastes slightly cold. source

It is used in perfumes, traditional Chinese medicine, antipyretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and is denser than water.

It is used to treat "obstruction of orifices", heat syndromes, pain, throat swelling, mouth sores, ear and eye infections, analgesia, anaesthesia.

It occurs in camphor laurel, rosemary, mint, ginger, (Artemisia vulgaris), (Dryobalanops aromatica), (Blumea balsamifera), (Coriandrum sativum), andin (Hyssopus officinalis).

Bornyl acetate

Bornyl acetate, C₁₂H₂₀O₂, is the acetate ester of borneol, C₁₀H₁₈O, and it occurs in odour of pine needles essential oil. source

Bornyl acetate, Isobornyl acetate, endo-2-Camphanyl ethanoate, C₁₂H₂₀O₂, acetate ester of borneol, food additive, flavouring, de-odourizing. source

Boron, B¶

Boron, B

Boron, Table of Elements

Boron, RSC

Boron, B (Persianbūra borax), non-metallic, occurs as brown amorphous powder or black crystals.

Highly toxic by all routes, so keep demonstration lump, not powder, in sealed glass container.

Pure boron is prepared by pyrolysis of boron hydrides and halides, or reduction of boron chloride or bromide with hydrogen.

Boron is inert in its crystalline form, and is unaffected by boiling hydrochloric acid or hydrofluoric acid.

Finely powdered boron is slowly oxidized by hot concentrated nitric acid.

Hot concentrated oxidizing agents only very slowly attack boron.

Boron is used in heat resistant glassware, (Pyrex, see below), soap, pesticides, cosmetics, leather products, cement products.

It is not an abundant element, does not occur in nature, and is mainly found in borates, e.g. borax and kernite.

It is a non-metal or metalloid, yellow-brown network solid, brown amorphous form and black metallic form.

It has metallic lustre, very hard (9.3 Mohs' scale) and strong semiconductor, found in minerals, e.g. tourmaline, and associated with volcanic activity as borates.

It is used in control rods for nuclear reactors and in green flares.

It is used in heat-resistant glassware (Pyrex), soap, pesticides, cosmetics, leather products, cement products.

Use boric acid to prepare children's clothing flame retardant.

Atomic number, 5, Relative atomic mass, 10.81, RD 2.34 (amorphous form), MP. = 2300 oC, b.p. = 2550 oC

Specific heat capacity, 123 × 103 J kg-1 K-1

Borosilicate, silica SiO₂ + boric oxide B₂O₃ source

Boron carbide does not mix with water and it is highly resistant to most chemical action including attack by hot hydrofluoric, nitric or chromic acids.

It is decomposed by molten alkalis at red heat, does not burn in oxygen flame.

Boron nitride, BN, white solid material, in hot produced hot pressed form low porosity, easily machined, anisotropic electrical and mechanical properties, because of its platy hexagonal crystals and their hot press orientation, high thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion, high electrical resistance, not toxic.

It is easily machined, chemically inert, insoluble in water.

It is used in electronic parts, microwave tubes, low friction seals, high temperature furnace fixtures and supports.

BN is stable in inert and reducing atmospheres up to 2000 oC, and in oxidizing atmospheres to 850 oC.

Pure BN material contains no binders and is used for extremes of temperature and where purity is important.

Boron oxide, B₂O₃, boron trioxide, crystals, slightly soluble cold water, soluble hot water, finely ground reacts vigorously with water to form boric acid. source

It has an amorphous form soluble in alcohol, glycerol and acids, and is prepared by fusing boric acid.

Boron tribromide, BBr₃, decomposed by water or alcohol to produce hydrobromic acid source

Boron trichloride, BCl₃, is decomposed by water or alcohol to produce hydrochloric acid and oily liquids with powerful irritant and corrosive action. source

Use boracic acid and sugar mixture to kill cockroaches

Experiments

Boron deficiency in soils: 6.13.1

Boron deficiency: 14.8.3, Bumpy fruit, Papaya

Boron toxicity: 4.3H

Tourmaline, contains Boron

Borosilicate glass, Pyrex: 7.9.10

Carborane, contains boron

Prepare boric acid crystals: 12.2.02

Decomposition of boric acid: 12.2.2.6, (See: 1.)

Boric acid, ionization reaction: 12.3.4

Tests for borates: 12.11.5

Borosilicate glass, Pyrex¶

Borosilicate glass, Pyrex

Addition of borate allows the formation of a glass that melts at a lower temperate than silica, and expands less on heating than soda glass.

Also, it is more plastic over a wider temperature range, e.g. Pyrex and glass wool.

So borosilicate glass has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and a softening temperature above 800 oC.

The composition may be 70% silica, 10% boron oxide and some sodium, potassium and calcium oxides.

The chemical composition of the Pyrex used in laboratory glassware may be different from the Pyrex used in kitchenware.

Pyrex is sold as, Mixing bowls, Pyrex, glass 1 litre, Casserole dish, freezer and dishwasher safe, 2 litre.

Bracteatin, C15H10O7¶

Bracteatin, C₁₅H₁₀O₇ source

Bracteatin, anthocyanin, a phenol and a 1-benzofuran

Bracteatin glucoside causes yellow colour of Snapdragon

Brass, Bronze¶

Brass, Bronze

Bronze, experiment

Brass, experiment

Clean bronze coins: 15.1.5

Copper: 35.2.25 Copper alloys: 5.1.0H

Corrosion of alloys, restore bronze coins: 15.3.14

Brass properties

Brass is mainly alloys of Cu and Zn, but Al, Fe, Mn, Ni, Sn, and Pb may be added.

Brass filings Local Purchase

A brass worker, or a heating pan containing hot coals, is called a brazier.

Calorimeter Block: Brass 1Kg

Bronze, Copper-tin alloys for coins, bells, gears Low Cost purchase

Bronze is mainly alloys of copper and tin, but some bronze may not contain tin, e.g. aluminium bronze, manganese bronze, and the bronze in "copper" coins.

The first bronze made in the ancient world was probably copper combined with arsenic, and may have been quite toxic.

Breakdown, large molecules to small molecules¶

Breakdown, large molecules to small molecules

Breakdown ethanol to ethene, (ethylene): 7.6.1

Breakdown starch to sugars: 7.6.2

Breakdown polymers to small molecules: 3.4.4.0

Breakdown of polymers with heat: 3.3.2

Breakdown starch during germination: 9.4.1

Breakfast cereal¶

E300 Ascorbic acid (in fruit and synthetically from glucose) (vitamin C) (antioxidant, preservative) (in breakfast cereals)

Energy from breakfast cereal: 9.1.5

Iron from breakfast cereal: 16.3.5

Use breakfast cereal powder for itching, moisturizing facial paste, chapped hands, baked chicken coating.

Breath test¶

Breath test for alcohol using breath analyser: 15.2.11

Breath test for alcohol using potassium dichromate: 15.2.3

Tests for carbon dioxide in the breath with limewater: 9.1.18

Brilliant dyes¶

Brilliant yellow, acid-base indicator

Synthetic food colours approved for use in Australia: 19.1.24

E133 Brilliant blue FCF (Banned, some countries) (colour, blue) (Health risk, asthma, hyperactivity) It is used in dairy products, sweets as aluminium solution or ammonium salt.

Brilliant Blue, FD and C Blue No. 1, is commonly used blue dye, in food, textiles, leathers, and cosmetics in USA.

It can enter the bloodstream via the skin or through the digestive tract and may inhibit cell respiration

Bullatacinone¶

Bullatacinone, C₃₇H₆₆O₇, an oligosaccharide, antitumour source

It occurs in bark of (Annona bullata)

Burn, burning, burners¶

Burn, burning, burners

Burn butane bubbles: 19.4.7

Burn candles: 8.1.0

Burn carbohydrates, fats and proteins: 9.1.1

Burn magnesium ribbon in oxygen: 13.3.4

Burn magnesium and weigh the products: 7.6.3

Burn methane: 16.5.1.2

Burn money: 8.3.4

Burn naphthalene crystals: 12.8.2

Burn substances in chlorine: 12.4.8

Burn steel wool: 11.3.1

Burn steel wool, change in weight11.3.2

Burn steel wool and weigh the products: 7.6.4

Burn sulfur in oxygen: 11.3.3

Burning sugar cube: 17.3.12

Burning tests for fabrics: 4.0.0

Butadiene, C4H6¶

Butadiene, C₄H₆ source

Butadiene, (1,3-Butadiene), C₄H₆, CH₂, CHCH,CH₂, vinyl ethylene, colourless gas, mild aroma like petrol, and is not soluble in water. source

However, it is soluble in most organic solvents

(conjugated diene, cis form in Diels-Alder reaction), from petroleum processing of petroleum.

Butadiene is used for production of synthetic rubber, plastics, acrylics in automotive tyres, hoses, belts, seals, gaskets, fungicides, latex adhesives nylon carpet backing, pipes, conduits, electrical components.

Butanoic acid, C3H7COOH¶

Butanoic acid, C₃H₇COOH source

Butanoic acid, butyric acid (COR 2820), n-butyric acid, ethylacetic acid, methylethylketone

Butanoic acid, Solution <5%, Not hazardous

Butanoic acid: 16.1.5

Butyric acid fermentation: 9.1.2

Butanone, C4H8O¶

Butanone, C₄H₈O source

Butanone, ethyl methyl ketone, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), sweet odour, Toxic, Flammable

Butanone and acetone, CH₃COCH₃, are the simplest saturated ketones (R1COR2), from some trees, car exhausts, irritant, used as a solvent. source

Butanone, Solution < 20% Not hazardous

Butenedioic acid, C4H4O4¶

Butenedioic acid, C₄H₄O₄ source

Butenedioic acid, C₄H₄O₄, fumaric acid, trans-butenedioic acid, HOOC-CH=CHCOOH, cis and trans forms source

Butenedioic acid, cis form, maleic acid, cis-butenedioic acid, cis-butane-1,4-dioic acid, HOOCCH=CHCOOH, Toxic if ingested

Butenedioic acid, trans form, trans-butenedioic acid, fumaric acid, Toxic if ingested

Butenedioic acid, Solution < 20% Not hazardous

Colourless crystalline solid, dicarboxylic acid, in Krebs cycle, causes cancer, threat to environment, combustible, but difficult to ignite.

It is used in paints, plastics, food processing and preservation.

Butein, C15H12O5¶

Butein, C₁₅H₁₂O₅ source

Butein, Anthocyanin, a tetrahydroxychalcone, antioxidant, antineoplastic, It occurs in (Toxicodendron vernicifluum), (Dahlia pinnata), (Butea monosperma), and in Coreopsis

Butin, C15H12O5¶

Butin, C₁₅H₁₂O₅ source

Butin, (7,3',4'-Trihydroxyflavanone), antioxidant, protection against mitochondrial dysfunction

It occurs in seeds of (Vernonia anthelmintica), in Dalbergia, and in (Acacia mearnsii).

Butyl¶

Butyl group, CH₃−CH₂−CH₂−CH₂−, [-(C₄H₉], CH₃(CH₂)₃^-, from butanes source

Butanol

Butyl bromide: 12.18.4

Butyl butanoate, n-Butyl butanoate, butyl butyrate, C₈H₁₆O₂, Flammable source

Butyl glycol: 16.1.3c

Butanol

12.1.11, Butyl chloride rainbow reactions

Butylphthalide

Butylphthalide lactone

12.1.11, Butyl chloride rainbow reactions¶

12.1.11, Butyl chloride rainbow reactions

Experiments

1. Make a pH 12 solution by adding 10 drops of 0.1 M NaOH to 100 mL water, in a 250 mL beaker.

Add universal indicator to produce a distinct colour.

Start with universal indicator.

Use a second 250 mL beaker to mix by pouring the solution back and forth between the two beakers or put a magnetic bar into the solution.

Start the stirrer motor at a fast rate.

Add 15 drops of t-butyl chloride (2-chloro-2-methylpropane) to the solution and begin mixing.

Observe any colour changes.

After 40 seconds add universal indicator and observe any colour changes.

The full range of colour changes (purple, blue, cyan, emerald-green, lime-green, yellow, orange, orange-red, take about two minutes.

The changes in the middle are more rapid than the changes at either extreme.

Use different indicators to show different colour changes and different induction times.

2 two solutions, 0.1 M 2-chloro-2 methylpropane (t-butyl chloride) in ethanol (1 g per 100 mL) and 0.01 M sodium hydroxide.

Put 5 mL 0.1 M C₄H₉Cl in a test-tube. source

In another test-tube put 5 mL 0.1 M NaOH, 10 mL water and two drops of any one of the following indicators.

Mix the solutions back and forth once and observe for the colour change that occurs after an induction period.

With equal volumes 0.01 M sodium hydroxide and 0.1 M C₄H₉Cl the colour changes with universal indicator were: source

Cooling the solutions greatly slows the reaction, increasing the induction period, e.g. with iced water, the methyl red change took more than 50 seconds.

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