Chemistry Experiments, Ci to Cy¶

To obtain purer crystals, dissolve the impure substance in water and boil the solution with powdered charcoal, (preferably "decolorizing" charcoal), for ten minutes.

Then filter the liquid and leave it in a hot place to evaporate and crystallize.

12.11.3.18 Tests for cobalt¶

Organic reagent: Nitroso-beta-naphthol, 1-nitroso-2-naphthol, C₁₀H₇NO₂, 1 g in 50 mL acetic acid source

Dilute to 100 mL Add reagent to neutral or slightly acid solution.

A brown colour indicates the presence of cobalt.

Use in Group IV when in solution after treatment with KClO₃ and acid, or use the solution after Group III. source

Cu, Fe, Sn, Ag, Cr, Bi, all interfere with the test.

Cinnamic acid¶

Cinnamic acid, C₉H₈O₂, C₆H₅CHCHCOOH, 3-phenylpropenoic acid, monocarboxylic acid, toxic if ingested, white crystals, odour like honey, soluble in water. source

It may cause contact dermatitis, and may relieve smooth muscle spasms.

It occurs in (Myroxylon balsamum), The inner bark for cinnamon sticks (Cinnamomum verum), (Styrax benzoin), and (Styrax balsam).

It occurs in Cinnamon bark oil, Coca Cola, Cinnamon leaf oil, (Liquidambar styraciflua), (Aloe vera), and (Alpinia calcarata).

Ethyl cinnamate, C₁₁H₁₂O₂, cinnamic acid ethyl ester, an alkyl cinnamate, 4-methyl cinnamic acid, stain, dyestuff, Toxic if ingested. source

It is used in flavorings, perfume industry, to produce the sweetener aspartame, C₁₄H₁₈N₂O₅. source

It occurs in Alpinia caerulea), (Mandragora autumnalis), and (Kaempferia galanga).

Cinnamyl acetate¶

Cinnamyl acetate, C₁₁H₁₂O₂, CH₃CO₂CH₂CH=CH(C6H5), (from condensation of cinnamyl alcohol + acetic acid), is a fragrance ingredient, in chewing gum. source

It occurs in Chinese cinnamon leaf oil, and Nicotiana.

Ethoxyethanol C₄H₁₀O₂ source

Ethyl ethanoate

Sodium acetate Ethyl ethanoate as a salt

Lead (II) acetate

3.7.36 Polyvinyl acetate

12.11.1 Tests for acetates

Cineole¶

Cineole, C₁₀H₁₈O, (1,8-cineol), Eucalyptol, monoterpene, cyclic ether, colourless liquid, smells like camphor, has spicy cooling taste. source

It is used as a flavouring agent, anti-inflammatory cough suppressant and airways mucuos controller.

Eucalyptol is used as a paint stripper, adhesive, solvent, sticky spot remover.

It is added to cigarettes to improve the flavour, and used as fragrance, mouthwash, and is anti-inflammatory.

It releases vapours for medical use, useful for getting chewing gum out of children's hair and turning stuck nuts and bolts Some deaths was reported after ingestion of essential eucalyptus oil.

Eucalyptus odour occurs in (Eucalyptus globulus).

Zedoary Oil, essential oil from rhizome of (Curcuma zedoaria), "zedoary" contains eucalyptol, and used to treat digestive disorders.

Zedoary has cytotoxic effects on non-small cell lung carcinoma and causes cancer cell apoptosis.

It occurs in E zhu (Curcuma zedoaria), Zingiberaceae.

Citral¶

Citral, C₁₀H₁₆O, geranial, a monoterpenoid, clear yellowish liquid, smells like lemons, volatile oil, toxic by ingestion. source

It has a bittersweet taste, less dense than water, about 0.9 g/cm3, and insoluble in water.

It is a flavouring ingredient, in laundry and dish-washing products, anti-microbial, irritant if heated to combustion, apoptotic, pain reliever and anti-inflammatory.

It occurs in Lemon myrtle, (Backhousia citriodora), and is the principle constituent of Lemon grass, (Cymbopogon citratus) oil and oil of (Litsea cubeba).

It occurs also in African tree basil, (Ocimum gratissimum), Pectis, Boesenbergia lemon, orange, and lemon balm.

Citral is the collective term for two terpenoid double bond isomers:

E-isomer, Geranial, Citral A, C₁₀H₁₆O. source

Z-isomer, Neral, Citral B, C₁₀H₁₆O. source

Geranial, (Citral A), (Citral E-isomer of citral, geranialdehyde, C₁₀H₁₆O, strong citrus lemon odour source

Neral, (Citral B, cis-citral, lemonal, neroli aldehyde, Citral Z-isomer of citral, monoterpenoid, C₁₀H₁₆O, sweeter lemon odour source

Citranaxanthin¶

Citranaxanthin, C₃₃H₄₄O, carotenoid pigment, yellow food dye, (apocarotenoid from cleavage of carotenoid). source

E161g: Citranaxanthin food additive.

Citronellal¶

Citronellal, C₁₀H₁₈O, monoterpenoid, rhodinal, in (Citrus depressa) Taiwan mandarin, (Melissa officinalis) lemon balm, 85% of oil of Citronellol source

Citronellol, C₁₀H₂₀O, acyclic monoterpenoid, in citronella oils: source

Constantan¶

Constantan, constant resistance wire, Eureka wire, CrAl (Kranthal) and NiCrm

Nichrome wire

Constantan wire 15.6 ohm / m, 6.9 ohm / m, 0.98 ohm / m

Constantan is an alloy, about 40% nickel and 60% copper, having high volume resistivity and negligible temperature coefficient.

Resistance hardly changes with change in temperature.

It is used for resistance wire.

Also Eureka wire, CrAl (Kranthal) and NiCrm (Nichrome wire) have very high resistivity.

An optical pyrometer is used to measure very high temperatures from the colour of the radiant heat source.

Experiment

Attach a piece of copper and a piece of constantan to two wires.

Heat lead to above its boiling point of 327 oC.

Attach the wires to a galvanometer and insert the copper and constantan into the boiling lead.

The galvanometer can be calibrated to read temperature and act as a thermocouple to read the temperature of the molten lead.

Citric acid¶

Citric acid, C₆H₈O₇ (anhydrous), HOC(CO₂H)(CH₂CO₂H)₂, CH₂COOH-C(OH)COOH-CH₂COOH source

"Bomb Bags", citric acid + sodium bicarbonate → carbon dioxide, (toy product) source

Citric acid, tricarboxylic acid, is a colourless to white crystalline powder, orthorhombic crystals or granules, soluble in water, odourless, sharp taste, translucent.

Citric acid, "2-hydroxy propane-1, 2, 3-tricarboxylic acid", MP about 100oC, slightly deliquescent in moist air, loses water of crystallization in dry air.

Store in tight containers, very weak acid with little corrosive action.

Citric acid is an acid compound in citrus fruits.

Sour taste of lemons, grapefruit, other citrus fruits, gooseberries and raspberries, caused by citric acid, so it is an ingredient in artificial lemonade powder.

In health salts, citric acid acts with sodium bicarbonate in the mixture to produce the fizz when the mixture is added to water.

Citric acid is used for making up buffer solutions and forming citrate salts.

It is used as an acidulant to control pH and as an anticoagulant by chelating calcium in blood.

Also "2-hydroxy-1, 2, 3-propanetricarboxylic acid", is about 10% dry weight of lemons.

Low cost in supermarkets a pure form of citric acid is sold as "sour salt".

Lemon juice is used as a deodorizer, mild bleach, and cleaner.

Experiments

Acids with baking soda: 12.1.18

Browning reactions of fruits and vegetables: 19.2.3.1

Citric acid cycle: 16.9.5, Krebs cycle

Citric acid solubility and temperature: 12.6.5

Citric acid with sodium hydrogen carbonate solution: 12.6.6

Heat citric acid to form carbon: 12.6.2.

Lemons, lemon juice 5-8% citric acid

Prepare citric acid crystals with lemon juice: 12.6.1.

Prepare hydrogen gas with citric acid: 13.3.15, (See: 2.).

12.6.2, Heat citric acid to form carbon¶

12.6.2, Heat citric acid to form carbon

Put 2 mL of citric acid crystals in a metal spoon.

Hold the end of the spoon in a paper holder and heat the citric acid crystals over a flame.

The first melt and then give off a vapour that ignites and burns with a yellow flame.

A black deposit of carbon remains on the spoon after the reaction, showing that citric acid is an organic substance.

The carbon can be burned off the spoon by continuing the heating.

12.6.5, Citric acid solubility and temperature¶

12.6.5, Citric acid solubility and temperature

The solubility of solid substances in water usually increases with rise of temperature.

However, calcium citrate is less soluble in hot water than in cold water.

Put 2 mL of calcium carbonate in a test-tube and add drops of citric acid.

Carbon dioxide forms.

When the reaction stops, add more drops of the acid solution until the calcium carbonate has completely dissolved.

The clear liquid is a solution of calcium citrate.

Hold the test-tube in a paper holder and heat the solution over a flame.

A white precipitate of calcium citrate forms in the liquid, because of the lower solubility of calcium citrate at higher temperatures.

12.6.6, Citric acid with sodium hydrogen carbonate solution¶

12.6.6, Citric acid with sodium hydrogen carbonate solution

C₆H₈O₇ + 3NaHCO₃ → C₆H₅Na₃O₇ + 3CO₂ + 3H₂O source

citric acid + sodium hydrogen carbonate → sodium citrate + carbon dioxide + water source

Experiment

Lemon juice with sodium bicarbonate

Do not use a glass container.

Put lemon juice into a plastic or tin plate container that can be sealed with a lid, e.g. coffee powder tin, film canister.

Squash absorbent paper, e.g. toilet tissue, newspaper, into the container so that it is wedged against the sides of the container, but does not touch the lemon juice.

Sprinkle sodium bicarbonate powder over the paper.

Seal the container, then invert it.

The citric acid in the lemon juice reacts with the sodium hydrogen carbonate to form CO₂, which increases the gas pressure in the container and blows off the lid. source

Such reactions have been used to make simple rockets.

If the container is attached to a rocket stick, by Newton's third law the force with which the lid is blown off (down), is equal to an equivalent upward force up.

So the rocket moves up.

Be careful! Do the experiment outside with a small amount of reactants.

Stand well away from the container after inverting it and do not look down from directly over the container.

Citrulline¶

Citrulline, C₆H₁₃N₃O₃, L-citrulline, delta-Ureidonorvaline, amino acid, nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, protective agent, micronutrient, irritant source

It occurs in watermelon Citrullus, and in sesame (Sesaman indicum).

Cigarette¶

Butane gas, (in cigarette lighters)

Cellulose triacetate: 3.5.8, (in cigarette filters)

Cerium: , Ce, with Lanthanum, in cigarette lighter ignition flints

Microbial decomposition of thin paper, cigarette paper: 4.2.8, (See 2.)

Nicotine, C₁₀H₁₄N₂ source

Nicotine spray: 4.7.3, (Agriculture)

Tests for cigarette smoke: 16.5.6

Tobacco plant, (Nicotiana tabacum), Solanaceae

Cinnamaldehyde¶

Cinnamaldehyde, C₉H₈O, trans-cinnamaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde flavonoid. yellowish oily liquid, cinnamon odour, sweet taste, cinnamon flavour and odour. source

It is a skin irritant, toxic in large doses, excreted in urine as cinnamic acid.

Cinnamaldehyde is not soluble in water, main component in cassia oil, cinnamon bark oil, flavouring compounds for cinnamon flavour.

Cinnamon bark has cinnamon and cassia aroma.

Cinnamaldehyde can be made synthetically, but is more commonly obtained from the steam distillation of the oil of cinnamon bark.

Cinnamaldehyde is hypoglycemic, vasodilator, antifungal, sensitiser, insecticide, scent repels cats and dogs.

It is used as a corrosion inhibitor for steel and other ferrous alloys in corrosive fluids.

Clay¶

7.6.1 Clay soils in water

11.3.2 Clay soil suspension

7.6.2 Clay suspensions in a centrifuge

7.6.3 Aluminium sulfate with clay suspensions

Illite

35.2.39 Kaolinite

6.4.5 Soil particle size, sand, silt, clay

34.2.10 Tests for strength of mud, clay, and sand bricks

Clenbuterol¶

Clenbuterol, C₁₂H₁₈Cl₂N₂O, a substituted aniline, bronchodilator agent, an amino alcohol. source

It has been used with beta-2 adrenomimetic properties at very low doses, as a bronchodilator in asthma treatment.

It is approved for medical use in some countries.

It is a performancing-enhancing drug banned by the International Olympic Committee.

It has been illegally used to build skeletal muscle and increase metabolism, but may cause heart attacks.

Collagen¶

Anatomy and physiology of meat: 19.2.1, (See: 2.)

Aniline blue: 7.7, (stains collagen), Prepare

Cooked collagen changes into gelatine: 19.2.8.5

Fibrous proteins and globular proteins: 16.6.0 (See: 1.)

Gels: 7.8.5, (See 2.), (Collagen is denatured.).

Prepare gelatine gel: 7.8.8

Roasting meat: 19.2.8.1, (slow cooking)

Collagen

Collagen is an insoluble fibrous protein in connective tissue, e.g. tendons, skin, bone.

Collagen is about one third of the protein in mammals is collagen.

Collagen is used sutures, leather substitutes, and food casings.

Vitamin, C is a water-soluble vitamin essential for the formation of collagen in connective tissue.

Columbianetin¶

Columbianetin, C₁₄H₁₄O₄, dihydro-oroselol, zosimol, a furanocoumarin. a tertiary alcohol, irritant source

It occurs in celery stalks (Apium graveolens), (Xanthoxylum arnottianum), and (Heracleum sprengelianum).

Clove oil¶

Clove oil, eugenol: 16.3.6.9

Clove plant, (Syzygium aromaticum), Myrtaceae

Eugenol, C₁₀H₁₂O₂, (in oil of cloves, cinnamon leaf oil, West Indian Bay oil) source

Clove oil, oil of cloves, is used for microscopy.

Use cloves in shelf corners to get rid of ants.

Use oil of cloves solutions for removing fungus infections from households.

Coal¶

Coal, coal tar, solid, lumps, peat, lignite (brown coal) bituminous coals, anthracite, coke

Coal: 35.3.2

Coal tar products: 16.4.0, creosote

Coal gas

Coal seam gas: 37.1.2

E102, Tartrazine (coal tar dye)

Fuchsine, fuchsin (magenta)

Jet black, jet, is a type of hard coal, which can be polished to make "jet black" beads to be used for mourning attire.

Jet from fossilized monkey puzzle trees has similar triboelectric properties to amber, generate static charge, so it may be called "black amber".

Prepare gases from coal: 16.1.2

Prepare ammonia, Haber process: 3.01, coal tar

12.6.0.2 "Sulfur" in coal, iron (II) sulfide (pyrite).

Coal gas¶

Coal gas (approximately 88 MJ / kg), is approximately 50% hydrogen gas, 35% methane, 8% carbon monoxide (poisonous gas).

+ hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen sulfide, used for a "safety smell"

Lately, "synthetic natural gas", SNG, is synthesized from coal or petroleum.

Coamidopropyl betaine¶

Coamidopropyl betaine, C₁₉H₃₈N₂O₃, surface-active agent, used for hair washing and foam booster in shampoos, may cause dermatitis. source

Coamidopropyl betaine is a mixture of compounds derived from coconut oil and dimethylaminopropylamine, C₅H₁₄N₂, (CH3)2NCH2CH2CH2NH2. source

Cobalt, Co¶

Cobalt, Co

Cobalt, Table of Elements

Cobalt, RSC

See: Cobalt and compounds. Gov.

Cobalt

Cobalt, Co (German Kobalt demon, which interfered with silver mining!)

Cobalt ion Co 2+, Cobalt (II) AAS Solution, pellets, powder.

Cobalt, (German kobold, goblin of the mines), was associated by miners with arsenic and sulfur health-damaging impurities.

Cobalt salts colour glass blue, plant and animal nutrition, trace element, transition hard, grey metal.

Cobalt forms complex ions, e.g. CoH2O)6] 2+, magnetic below 1075oC, essential element, but toxic in excess.

It is used in alloys radiography, magnets, steel.

Cobalt (II) oxide used to colour glass blue.

Occurs in the body only as Vitamin B12, (cyanocobalamin), (C₆₃H₈₈CoN₁₄O₁₄P), produced by the bacterium (Escherichia coli). source

Cobalt (German kobold, goblin of the mines), was associated by miners with arsenic and sulfur health-damaging impurities.

Atomic number 27, Relative atomic mass 58.9332, RD 8.90, MP = 1492oC, BP = 2900oC.

Specific heat capacity 435 J kg -1 K -1

Atomic number 27, Relative atomic mass 58.9332, RD 8.90, MP = 1 492oC, BP = 2 900oC

Specific heat capacity 435 J kg -1 K -1

Cobalt has 28 radioisotopes, including:

Cobalt-60, (60Co), is used for sterilizing and for treating cancer patients.

Cobalt-57, (57Co), is used in medical and scientific research.

Toxic salts: Cobaltous aluminate (cobalt blue), Cobalt magnesium borate (cobalt violet, violet 48), Cobaltous oxide (cobalt green)

Tests for cobalt: 12.11.3.18

12.6.9, Properties of cobalt salts¶

12.6.9, Properties of cobalt salts

Co(H₂O)₆ 2+ = pink hexa aqua cobalt (II) ion, hexaaquacobalt (II) ion source

1. Heat cobalt carbonate in a small hard glass tube.

The brown residue is cobalt (II) oxide.

CoCO₃ → CoO + CO₂ source

Transfer the oxide to a crucible and heat to redness.

The black residue is cobalt (II) cobalt (III) oxide, Co₂O₄. source

2. Add excess of hot sodium hydroxide solution to 3 cm of a cobalt salt solution.

Note the pink precipitate of cobalt (II) hydroxide.

Note the change to brown cobalt (III) oxide, Co₂O₃ on exposure to air. source

Cobalt (II) hydroxide is soluble in ammonia solution, NH₃ (aq) ("ammonium hydroxide"), because of the formation of the complex ion Co(NH)₆ 2+. source

Co 2+ + 2OH - → Co(OH)₂ (s) source

3. Add a suspension of bleaching powder to a test-tube containing a cobalt (II) salt solution.

Note the black precipitate of cobalt (II) hydroxide.

The bleaching powder acts as an alkaline hydroxide and an oxidizer.

Divide the precipitate into two parts.

Add excess hydrochloric acid to one part to obtain a brown solution of the unstable cobalt (II) chloride.

Heat the second part to obtain oxygen gas and a residue containing cobalt (II) oxide.

Cobalt (II) hydroxide behaves as a weak base.

4. Evaporate cobalt (II) chloride solution to dryness and note the blue colour of the anhydrous salt.

Cobalt chloride is stable compare to hydrated iron (II) chloride.

Write on a piece of paper with dilute cobalt chloride solution.

Leave to dry and the writing becomes invisible.

Heat the paper from below and writing appears bright blue, because of dehydration of the salt.

So cobalt chlorine solution is a kind of "invisible ink".

5. Put drops of pink cobalt chloride solution on filter paper, hold it over a flame, see brilliant blue colour of the anhydrous salt.

A weather indicator can be made by soaking white paper in a concentrated solution of cobalt chloride.

6. Cobalt ions with carbonate ions.

Pink cobalt ions solution, Co(H₂O)₆ 2+, reacts with carbonate ions solution to form gelatinous calcium carbonate precipitate in a pink solution. source

Co 2+ (aq) + CO 3 2- (aq) → CoCO₃ (s) source

7. Add a dilute solution of ammonia to a cobalt chloride solution to form a green-blue precipitate.

Add excess ammonia to dissolve the precipitate to leave a light brown solution.

Leave to stand to allow oxidation in the air to form a deep red-brown solution.

The same colour change occurs if hydrogen peroxide is used.

Co(H₂O)₆ 2+ + 2NH₃ → Co(H₂O)₄(OH)₂ + 2NH₄ + source

(Hydrogen ions are detached from the complex ions to form a green-blue neutral complex precipitate).

Co(H₂O)₆ 2+ + 2NH₃ → Co(NH₃)₆ 2+ + 6H₂O source

(With excess ammonia, the neutral complex dissolves to form a green solution containing hexa amine cobalt (II) ions, hexaaminecobalt (II) ions).

Co(NH₃)₆ 2+ + O₂ in the air → Co(NH₃)₆ 3+ source

(Leave to stand so that the hexaminecobalt (II) complex is oxidized to deep red-brown hexaminecobalt (III) complex).

2Co(NH₃)₆ 2+ + H₂O₂ → 2Co(NH₃)₆ 3+ + 2OH - source

(It is the same colour change as above reaction only faster).

8. Add limewater CaOH)2, or sodium hydroxide solution to cobalt chloride solution.

A light blue precipitate forms that on standing the solution turns pink.

Co(H₂O)₆ 2+ + limewater → Co(H₂O)₄(OH)₂ (neutral complex) source

9. Test for aluminium compounds

Put drops of red cobalt chloride solution on filter paper.

Add drops of aluminium sulfate solution.

Dry the filter paper over a flame then ignite it over a ceramic bowl.

The blue ash formed is a test for all aluminium compounds in solution.

10. Tests for heat, heat-sensitive paper

Add cobalt (II) chloride solution to ammonium chloride solution (sal ammoniac).

Dilute this solution until it is pale pink.

Soak absorbent paper in the solution and leave to dry and become almost colourless.

The paper turns bright green colour when heated.

Cobalt compounds¶

Cobalt (II) carbonate, CoCO₃.xH2O source

Cobalt (II) chloride

Cobalt (II) nitrate

Cobalt (II) oxide, CoO

Cobalt deficiency in soils: 6.13.3

Cobalt toxicity: 4.6.6

Concentration and temperature, cobalt (II) chloride-6-water: 17.1.2

Hydrogen peroxide with potassium sodium tartrate, cobalt (II) chloride catalyst: 17.7.18

Sodium hypochlorite decomposition, cobalt sulfate catalyst: 17.3.11

Properties of cobalt salts: 12.6.9

Tests for cobalt (nitroso-beta-naphthol test): 12.11.3.18

Tests for the presence of water with cobalt (II) chloride paper: 8.2.2

Cobalt (II) carbonate, CoCO3¶

Cobalt (II) carbonate, CoCO₃ source

Cobalt (II) carbonate hydrate, CoCO₃.xH2O source

Cobalt (II) carbonate (basic) (blue glaze for craft, for spectral analysis with flame test for cobalt), Harmful

Cobalt (II) carbonate, Low cost from pottery supplies stores

Cobalt (II) carbonate with hydrochloric acid forms cobalt (II) chloride

Cobalt (II) carbonate with with nitric acid forms cobalt (II) nitrate

Cobalt (II) chloride¶

Cobalt chloride, CoCl₂, cobalt (II) chloride, CoCl₂.6H₂O cobalt (II) chloride hydrated, cobalt (II) chloride-6-water, harmful if ingested, environment danger source

Cobalt (II) chloride decahydrate, cobalt (II) chloride-6-water: 17.5.1

Cobalt (II) chloride-6-water, For 0.1 M solution, 23.8 g in 1 L water

Cobalt (II) chloride solution, crystals CoCl₂.6H₂O, invisible writing ink 3.2.5.2 source

Concentration and temperature, cobalt (II) chloride-6-water: 17.1.2

Tests for heat, heat-sensitive paper: 5.3.10

Cobaltous chloride AAS Solution

Glycerine with cobalt chloride solution: 12.1.8

Tests for water with cobalt (II) chloride paper: 8.2.2

Cobalt (II) nitrate hexahydrate¶

Cobalt (II) nitrate hexahydrate, Co(NO₃)₂.6H₂O, cobalt (II) nitrate hydrated source

Harmful if ingested, red-brown, deliquescent, monoclinic crystals, is soluble in water and other solvents.

Cobalt nitrate, For 0.1 M solution, 29 g in 1 L water

Cobalt (II) oxide¶

Cobalt (II) oxide, CoO, cobalt oxide, cobaltous oxide, green orange to pink solid, craft blue glaze, do NOT inhale.

Cocaine¶

Cocaine, C₁₇H₂₁ON₄, benzoylmethylecgonine, alkaloid ester, benzoic acid ester, local aneasthetic, vasoconstrictor, has powerful CNS effects like amphetamines. source

It is a drug of abuse, causes inhibition of dopamine uptake, high doses mood elevating effects and toxic reactions, in the cocoa plant (Erythroxylum coca).

Cobalt (II) thiocyanate, Co(SCN)₂, Harmful, Environment danger, in Scott's reagent test for cocaine source

Copolymer, Polymer from linking different monomer types, e.g. cocaine, curare, caffeine, piperine

See diagram 16.20.0chd: Caffeine, cocaine, coniine, heroin, LSD

See diagram 16.21.7chd: Mescaline, dopamine, psilocybin, serotonin, ergine, LSD, tropane

Tropane Alkaloids: 16.6.16

Cocaine and amphetamines: 5.7.0

Cocaine and crack cocaine: 5.7.0

It occurs in Cocoa (Erythroxylon coca), Erythroxylaceae.

Hallucinogenic drugs, hallucinogens: 5.5.15

Cola

"Cola-Mentos Fountain Kit" (toy product)

Cola tree (Cola acuminata), Goora nut, (Abata cola), Sterculiaceae

Giant cola (Cola gigantea), Sterculiaceae

Kola nut, Cola nut (Cola nitida) (C. acuminata), [theobromine, caffeine alkaloid], Sterculiaceae

Kola nuts (Cola vera), herbal medicine, Sterculiaceae

The recipe for the beverage Coca-Cola is said to be a commercial secret.

The Coca-Cola product Coke Zero, now rebranded Coca-Cola Zero Sugar, contains the artificial sweeteners aspartame and acesulfame potassium (Ace-K).

Caramel is used as a flavouring and food colouring E150 in candy and Coca Cola.

Cinnamon bark oil (contains cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, benzyl benzaldehyde, pinene), occurs in Coca Cola.

Contraception, Cola put into the vagina after having sex does not work as a contraceptive.

Methyl imidazole, 4-methylimidazole, 4-MEI, is a caramel colouring in cola drinks.

Cola drinks contain phosphoric acid.

Beverage can pressure: 12.2.4

Cola: 19.6.0

Soft drinks, carbonated beverages, fizzy drinks, sports drinks

Carbon dioxide:

Carbonic acid: 3.9.0

Density of cola and diet cola: 11.2.5

Beverage can, drink can:

Freezing point depression of carbonated water, cola: 24.1.05

Colour¶

18.7.9 Tests for colour of water

35.1.4 Color of rocks and minerals

18.2.0 Colorimetric tests, Total dissolved solids and suspended solids in water

11.3.3 Colour change of diluted potassium permanganate

12.2.4.02 Coloured precipitates, double decomposition reactions

19.1.7 Colours, food colours, food additives

Physics

Colorimetric tests Total dissolved solids...

Colour of water Tests

Colour spectrum

Colours blue sky and sunset

Dichroic polarization colours

Fifth field (Map colouring topology), (Mathematics)

Combustion¶

Combustion: 8.2.0

Combustible solids: 3.5.6

Combustion of butane: 16.6.4.0

Combustion of gasoline, Distil crude oil and collect the fractions: 10.3.9

Burning sugar cube, combustible cube: 17.3.12

Fire safety and fire equipment: 3.5.0

Heat sources, candles, heat substances, thermal decomposition: 8.3.0

Composition of¶

Composition of edible oils: 3.9.3

Composition of the atmosphere and greenhouse gases: 37.2.2

Prepare sea water crystals, composition of sea water: 3.1.14

Compounds, Chemical compound¶

Compounds, Chemical compound

A chemical compound contains two or more atoms of different elements that share a chemical bond.

Direct union of elements to form compounds: 7.4.20

Synthesis reactions (combination reactions, direct union of elements): 12.2.2.0

Decomposition reactions: 12.2.2

Pure substances and impure substances, elements and compounds: 7.2.0

Contact explosives

Acetone peroxide, TATP (triacetone triperoxide), C₉H₁₈O₆, high explosive, white powder, bleach smell source

Lead azide, Pb(N₃)₂, contact explosive, in detonators source

Mercury (II) fulminate, Hg(CNO)₂.H₂O, Hg(ONC)₂, initiator in detonator and percussion source

Nitrogen triiodide, NI 3: 12.19.6.13

Nitroglycerine: 16.6.10

Picric acid

Potassium chlorate in pyrotechnic flash powders: 15.2.13.2

Silver fulminate, AgCNO, contact explosion, extremely sensitive, tiny amounts are used in children's noise-making toys.

Silver nitride, Ag 3 N, contact explosive unstable, is an occasionally unwelcome occurrence in silver experiments.

Tetrasulfur tetanitride, S₄N₄ source

TNT, trinitrotoluene, CH₃C₆H₂(NO₂)₃ source

Conservation¶

Conservation of mass: 11.3.0

Conservation of energy: 9.2.0

Soil conservation: 6.5.0

Copernicium, Cn¶

Copernicium, Cn

Copernicium, Table of the Elements

Copernicium, RSC

Copernicium named by IUPAC in 2010 after Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 -1543), Prussia, now Poland.

copnericum, Table of Elements

Corrosion¶

Corrosion,: 15.1.0

Corrosive substances: 3.4.4, (Chemical safety)

Corrosive sublimate, Mercury (II) chloride

Corrosive to metals: 4.16

Cotton¶

It occurs in Cotton bush (Gossypium barbadense), Malvaceae.

Card and cotton reel spool, lifting plate: 13.2.4, (Physics)

4.2.4, Cotton, burning test for natural fabrics: 4.2.4

Glass transition temperature (Tg), chewing gum, cotton: 3.4.0

Flaming and cotton wool plugs: 4.4.3, (Microbiology)

Fluorescent whitening agents in washing powders: 12.12.03.3a

Tests for cellulose, iodine tests for cellulose: 9.3.8

Cotton

Cotton buds, double -ended, pack / 100

Cotton cord, 2.5 mm

Cotton Blue (aniline blue, methyl blue, Helvetia blue, acid blue 93), C.I. 42780, C₃₇H₂₇N₃Na₂O₉S₃, histology and fungus stain source

Cotton Red (Gossipmine, CI 50240) CI₂₂₁₂₀, CI Direct Red 28, Congo Red source

Cotton reels, pack 144

Cotton seed oil, cottonseed oil Gossypium, meal for chickens

Cotton wool, pack 450 g, Cotton wool is almost pure cellulose.

Cotton wool balls, Dove Swisspers, 25 g, pack / 60

Cotton wool squares, Dove Swisspers, box / 80

Calico

Coumaric acid, C9H8O3¶

Coumaric acid, C₉H₈O₃ source

Coumaric acid, p-Coumaric acid, 4-Hydrocinnamic acid, yellow-green crystalline powder, in flavours and pharmaceuticals

Cracking¶

Thermal cracking is the use of heat and pressure for controlled breakdown of naphtha, C 10, to form smaller hydrocarbon molecules and light olefins (alkenes).

For example ethylene, propylene butylene, which can later be polymerized.

The process increases the yield of petrol (gasoline), C 6-10, from crude oil and increases the octane rating.

Catalytic cracking: Si or Al catalysts to lower temperature to break down crude petroleum hydrocarbons or LPG or natural gas to form monomers, e.g. ethane, propane.

The smaller molecules formed by cracking often have branch chains.

Crocetin¶

Crocetin, C₂₀H₂₄O₄, xanthophyll carotenoid pigment, (apocarotenoid), Trans-Crocetin, Natural Yellow-6, croceic acid, precursor of Safranal, C₁₀H₁₄O. source

It occurs in Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoldes), and in Saffron (Crocus sativus).

Crocin¶

Crocin, C₄₄H₆₄O₂₄, carotenoid pigment, alpha-crocin, Gardenia Yellow, crocin digentiobiose ester, water-soluble (apocarotenoid), diterpene, gentiobiose diester of crocetin, from deep red forms orange solution, antioxidant, possibly anticancer. source

It occurs in Gardenia, (Gardenia jasminoldes), and Saffron, (Crocus sativus).

Cryptoxanthin¶

Cryptoxanthin, C₄₀H₅₆O, a carotenol antioxidant, a provitamin A, occurs in papaya and orange fruit, and in the cyanobacterium (Planktothrix rubescens). source

Crystals¶

"Crystal" may refer to soda-lime glass containing lead monoxide, often called "lead crystal" and use in wine glasses and ornaments

Breaking strains, brittleness: 34.5.2.0

Cleavage, fracture, twin crystals, crystal faces: 35.9

Condy's crystals: , KMnO₄ source

Crystals

Crystal growth on overhead projector

Crystal faults, crushing salt: 34.8.6

Crystal growth in a film: 34.8.5

Crystal systems, crystal habit, crystal form: 35.8

Crystals of different salts, storm glass: 12.10.1.0

Crystals and polymers

Elasticity (Tension, Compression, Shear): 34.5.01

Fractional crystallization of sea water: 7.7.14

Ice model: 34.8.2

Ice nuclei: 34.8.4

Materials from the Earth: 34.3.0

Mechanical properties of materials, elastic, ductile, malleable: 34.5.0

Phenyl salicylate, C₁₃H₁₀O₃ source

Poisson's ratio, v: 34.5.06

Prepare crystal violet, microscopy stain: 7.21

Prepare crystal violet solution: 22.01

Prepare crystals: 3.0.0

Prepare crystals, Water of crystallization, (List)

Rocks and minerals, definitions, mineral classification and origin: 35.4

Separate by recrystallization: 10.9.0

Shape memory alloy, Nitinol: 34.8.7

Shape or form (crystals): 35.19

Solid models, sphere packing: 34.8.8

Transparency (transparent, translucent, opaque, refraction): 35.7

Water of crystallization: 3.6.0

Cubebin¶

Cubebin, C₂₀H₂₀O₆, tetrahydro-3,4-dipiperonylfuran-2-ol, lignan, benzodioxole, secondary alcohol, lactol, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial source

It is extracted from leaves of (Piper nigrum).

Curium, Cm¶

Curium, Cm

Curium, Table of Elements

Curium, RSC

Curium, Cm, radioactive metallic actinide

Curium is named after Marie Curie, 1867-1934, Poland / France.(br)

Cubebene¶

Cubebene, beta-Cubebene, C₁₅H₂₄, tricyclic sesquiterpenoid, in leaf oil cubebene from flowering plants source

Cucurbitacins¶

Cucurbitacins are oxygenated tetracyclic triterpenes mainly in seeds and roots of cucurbits, cucumbers, squash, melons and gourds, Cucurbitaceae.

All Cucurbitacins are related to Cucurbitacin A, C₃₂H₄₆O₉. source

Curbitacins A to S, bitter taste, some cytotoxic, antitumour, some toxic, in Cucumis.

Some cucurbits can be toxic if eaten in great amounts, causing "toxic squash syndrome".

Diners are advised to stop eating excessively bitter cucurbits.

Cucurbitane, C₃₀H₅₄, triterpene. source

Cuminaldehyde¶

Cuminaldehyde, C₁₀H₁₂O, (4-isopropylbenzaldehyde), cuminal, flavouring agent, suppresses melanin formation in melanoma cells. source

It occurs in seed oil of Cumin (Cuminum cyminum), and is possibly antidiabetic.

Curcumene¶

Curcumene, C₁₅H₂₂, sesquiterpene, alpha-curcumene, (Curcuma xanthorrhiza), Javanese turmeric, wild tomato (Solanum phlomoides), insecticide, insect repellent in turmeric, bright yellow. source

Cyanide, CN¶

Cyanide, CN

A cyanide contains the cyano group C≡N.

An inorganic cyanide is a salt or ester of hydrocyanic acid, containing the group -CN or the Cyanide anion −C≡N.

Cyanide, CN, cyanides CN -, nitriles, cyanide reagent test kit

Cyanide (cyano), CN-, monodentate ligand

Cyano -CN

A nitrile is an organic compound in which an alkyl group is directly attached to the carbon of a cyanide group.

Nitrile: 16.7.6

Hydrocyanic acid, hydrogen cyanide, Extremely Toxic: 16.2.4.2

Amygdalin, C₂₀H₂₇NO₁₁, cyanogenic glucoside source

Cyanide compounds, Cyan-

Cyanamide

Cyanic acid, C₃H₃N₃O₃ fulminic acid (salts fulminates) source

Cyanidin, C₁₅H₁₁O₆ source

Cyanine dyes

Cyanoacetic acid, C₃H₃NO₂ source

Cyanocrylates, (CH₂)C(CN)COOR, "Superglue": 16.2.4.7 source

Cyanogen, (CN)2

Cyanuric acid

Cyanamide, CH2N2¶

Cyanamide, CH₂N₂ source

Cyanamide, CH₂N₂, NH₂CN, carbimide, cyamamide, colourless, deliquescent crystal, soluble in water, alcohol and organic solvents, fertilizer, defoliant source

Cyanamides, inorganic salts, CN₂ 2- : 16.2.4.2.1 source

Calcium cyanamide, CaCN₂, often called "cyamamide" or "nitrolime", fertilizer source

Cyanidin, Anthocyanin, C15H11O6 +¶

Cyanidin, Anthocyanin, C₁₅H₁₁O₆ + source

Cyanidin, anthocyanidin cation, neuroprotective, antioxidant, red-purple pigment in berries, apple, plum, red cabbage, red onion

Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, 3G, kuromanin, C₂₁H₂₁O₁₁⁺ source

Cyanidin-3-rutinoside, C₂₇H₃₁ClO₁₅, decrease blood sugar levels source

Hydroxycyanidin, in Alstroemeria

Cyanidin glucoside, C₂₁H₂₁O₁₁⁺ source

Cyanidin glucoside, Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, Cyanidin galactoside, Kuromanin, anthocyanin cation, a beta-D-glucoside

It occurs in American cranberry (Viburnum trilobum), cherries, olives, and in grapes.

Cyanidinrutinoside, C27H31O15+¶

Cyanidinrutinoside, C₂₇H₃₁O₁₅⁺ source

Cyanidinrutinoside, Cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, Cyaninoside, Sambucin, rutinoside, anthocyanin cation, disaccharide derivative, a benzene

It occurs in asparagus, and in blackcurrant.

Cyanin, C27H31O16 +¶

Cyanin, C₂₇H₃₁O₁₆ + source

Cyanin, Cyanidin 3, 5-O-diglucoside, a beta-D-glucoside, anthocyanin cation, red plant pigment

It occurs in Sambucus.

Cyanine dyes¶

Cyanine dyes, R2N-(CH=CH)n-CH=N + R2, fluorophore labels for proteins and nucleic acids

Cyanine acid blue R dye

Cyanoacetic acid¶

Cyanoacetic acid, C₃H₃NO₂, yellow-brown liquid, unpleasant odour, mixes with water. source

Cyanocobalamine¶

Cyanocobalamine, C₆₃H₈₈CoN₁₄O₁₄P, Vitamin B12, water-soluble vitamin, necessary for haematopoiesis (blood cells and plasma production) source

Deficiency causes anemias.

Cyanocrylates¶

Cyanocrylates (CH₂)C(CN)COOR, e.g. "Superglue": Me or Et ester source

Ethyl cyanoacrylate, "Superglue", BE CAREFUL! Do not squirt in the eye! Toxic by all routes

Chemical suppliers: Ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate, liquid, C₆H₇NO₂ source

GBL, γ-butyrolactone is a naturally occurring colourless oily liquid with a characteristic odour.

It is used as a stain remover and stripper, (including "Superglue").

Cyanogen¶

Cyanogen, (CN)2, (i.e. two joined "CN"s), NC≡CN, (note triple bond), colourless, nasty smell, Toxic

Cyanuric acid¶

Cyanuric acid, C₃H₃N₃O₃, (CNOH)3, conditioner, stabilizer, 18.7.14 source

Cyanuric acid CNOH)3, H₃C₃N₃O₃, is used in for swimming pools, purifying tablets, white soluble crystals, solution converts to urea. source

Cyanamides: 16.2.4.2.1

Cyanuric acid, conditioner, stabilizer: 18.1.6, conditioner, stabilizer, (Swimming pools)

Cyanuric chloride¶

Cyanuric chloride, C₃Cl₃N₃, colourless crystalline, strong pungent odour, slightly soluble, toxic by ingestion and inhalation source

Cyasterone¶

Cyasterone, C₂₉H₄₄O₈, phytosterol, a steroid lactone, a hydroxy steroid, a phytoecdysteroid, insect moulting hormone activity, inhibits insect ovary development. source

It occurs in Ajuga.

Cycasin¶

Cycasin, C₈H₁₆N₂O₇, a carcinogenic and neurotoxic glycoside source

. It occurs in the seeds of all cycas genera, e.g. (Cycas revoluta) and (Zamia pumila), causes the fatal nervous disease "Zamia staggers" in herbivores.

Indigenous Chemistry

Detoxification of cycasin

The development of complex detoxification processes by the rainforest Aboriginal peoples of North Queensland was driven by the food needs of that society.

Data, gathered from experiments that attempted to remove toxins, allowed this cultural group to modify and perfect the detoxification processes.

Europeans survived a near-fatal experience after consuming under-processed cycad kernels on the first voyage to Australia by Cook and his party in 1770.

Many of the detoxification processes of poisonous plant foods employed by Aboriginal peoples throughout Australia have been documented.

These detoxification processes provide evidence of Australia's First Nations peoples’ extensive scientific knowledge of chemical and physical processes.

Cycads are a source of carbohydrates, but they contain toxic cycasin, which causes vomiting, nausea and abdominal pains, damage to the nervous system and liver.

Cycasin has been linked to various types of cancer.

Cycasin consists of glucose chemically bound to the active toxic substance, methylazoxymethanol (MMA), C₂H₆N₂O₂. source

In water, cycasin is broken up into these two parts, thus facilitating the removal of the toxic and water soluble MMA - Methoxymethanol.

This is a slow reaction, so Aboriginal peoples had to discover measures to speed up the reaction, increasing the contact surface with water and the temperature.

If the untreated cycad kernels are consumed, the same reaction happens at a much greater rate in the body due to β-glucosidase), causing acute symptoms.

Cyclo-¶

Cycloalkanes, CnH2n: 16.4.1.2

"Cyclodiene" pesticides

Examples of cycloalkanes

Cycloartenol, C₃₀H₅₀O source

Cyclopropane, C₃H₆ source

Cyclobutane, C₄H₈ source

Cyclodiene

Cyclopentane, C₅H₁₀ source

Cyclohexane

Cycloheptane C₇H₁₄ source

Cyclooctane C₈H₁₆ source

Cyclovirobuxine, alkaloid

Cycloartenol¶

Cycloartenol, C₃₀H₅₀O, pentacyclic triterpenoid, a 3beta-sterol, a phytosterol source

Cycloastragenol¶

Cycloastragenol, C₃₀H₅₀O₅, sapogenin, pentacyclic triterpenoid, tetrol, oxolane source

It is extracted from root of (Astragalus membranaceus).

Cyclodiene¶

Alkenes, CnH2nolefins: 16.1.1.2

Cyclodiene pesticides, aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor: 16.4.01

Cyclohexanol

Cyclohexyl alcohol, HOCH(CH₂)₅, cyclohexanol, precursor to manufacture of nylon source

Cyclohexanone

Cyclohexene, 3,4,5,6-tetra hydrobenzene, (old stock may form unstable peroxides), Toxic, Flammable

Cyclonite CH₂N.NO2)3, Hexogen, cyclothrimethylene trinitramine, explosive, used with TNT source

Cyclosilicates, Be₃Al₂(SiO₃)₆: Beryl source

Cyclohexane¶

Cyclohexane, C₆H₁₂, flammable organic chemical: Cyclohexane source

Cyclohexane, hexamethylene, hexahydrobenzene, colourless liquid, ethereal petroleum-like odour, Highly flammable, Toxic, occurs in kohlrabi

It is used as a solvent, oil extractant, paint and varnish remover, and in solid fuels.

Cycloalkanes: 16.4.1.2

Cyclohexane, aromatic hydrocarbons, e.g.: Benzene, C₆H₆ source

See diagram 16.1.1h: Cyclohexane, octane number

Flammable liquids, cyclohexane: 3.5.8

Prepare nylon polymer: 3.4.7.

Steam distillation to measure water and fat content of food: 10.5.5

Cyclohexanol¶

Cyclohexanol, C₆H₁₁OH, hexahydrophenol, cyclohexyl alcohol, hexahydrobenzene, hexalin, Toxic source

Cyclohexanol, Solution < 20%, Not hazardous

Cyclohexanol, oily colourless liquid, Molal freezing point constant of cyclohexane solvent: 24.1.14

Cyclohexanone¶

Cyclohexanone, C₆H₁₀O, 2,4-DNP Hydrazone, Toxic by all routes, flammable, used in skin and eye protection source

Cyclohexanone, Solution < 1%, Not hazardous

Cyclohexanone, colourless liquid, odour like propane, cellulose lacquers, solvent

Cymene¶

Cymene, C₁₀H₁₄, monoterpene-relative hydrocarbon, p-cymene, p-isopropyltoluene, p-cymol, cuminal, alkylbenzene, colourless liquid, pleasant odour, floats on water, in oil of | Cumin, (Cuminum cyminum) | source

Cyperene¶

Cyperene, C₁₅H₂₄, sesquiterpene, alpha-cyperene, occurs in Nutgrass (Cyperus bulbosus), and in Burdock (Arctium lappa). source

Cytosine¶

Cytosine, C₄H₅N₃O [4-Amino-2-hydroxypyrimidine], cytosinimine source

It is pyrimidine base that is a fundamental unit of nucleic acids, is found in DNA and RNA that pairs with guanine.

Cytosine, C₄H₅N₃O, DNA and RNA: 9.4.0 source

Cytosine, Nucleic acid nitrogenous bases 3.0.0

See diagram 16.3.4.4chd: Heterocyclic compoundss, cytosine

Cysteine¶

Cysteine, C₃H₇NO₂S, L-cysteine, a thiol-containing non-essential amino acid that is oxidized in humans to form cystine. source

It is used as a flour treatment agent.

E920, L-cysteine monohydrochloride

Cysteine, (Table of amino acids)

Cysteine, DNA codons

Cystine¶

Cystine, C₆H₁₂N₂O₄S₂, L-cystine, (mirror image cystine), nonessential amino acid source

It is formed by the oxidation of cysteine, (two molecules of cysteine are joined by disulfide bridge).

It is used as a flour treatment agent.

Cytochromes¶

Cytochrome C, CYP, myohematin, hematin-protein, C₄₂H₅₂FeN₈O₆S₂ source

CYP: enzymes in liver and small intestines that use iron to oxidize harmful substances and drugs by making them more water-soluble.

This process is called "Phase I metabolism".

They may add a hydroxyl group then conjugation to groups such as glucuronide to increase the solubility even further

This process is called "Phase 2 metabolism".

Cytochrome P450 catalysed reaction NADPH+ H + + O₂ + RH → NADP + + H₂O + R-OH source

(Where NADPH is a protein in the endoplasmic reticulum).

Also, CYP affects vascular autoregulation, in the brain and the formation of cholesterol, and steroids.

About 50 CYPs occur in humans.

Just as plants develop new alkaloids to limit their consumption by animals, animals develop new enzymes to metabolise the plant toxins.

Most CYP is anchored to membranes of the microsomal portion of the cell.

After adding an agent to reduce haem, part is exposed to carbon monoxide and if it strongly absorbs light at 450nm wavelength.

compared with the original solution, it must contain CYP, a process called "difference spectroscopy".

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