Chemistry, Aa to Ac¶

Perchloric acid HClO₄, hydrochloric acid HCl, hydrobromic acid HBr, hydroiodic acid (hydriodic acid), HI, nitric acid HNO₃, and sulfuric acid H₂SO₄. source

Any other acid is a weak acid, because it does not completely dissociate in water.

12.3.4 pH¶

Water can transfer a proton from one molecule to another, autionization.

2H₂O < → H₃O⁺+ OH-and H₂O < → H++ OH- source

The product of hydrogen ion concentration, [H+] and hydroxide ion concentration, [OH-] = the constant, Kw

Kw = [H+] × [OH-] = 1.00 × 10-14

So [H+] = 10-7and [OH-] = 10-7

The hydrogen ion concentration is very small in pure water, so the concentration is describes in terms of its negative log.

pH is the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration, pH = -log[H+], so hydrogen ion concentration, [H+] = 10-pH.

So acidic solutions have a high [H+] and low pH values.

Basic solutions have low [H+] and high pH values.

A solution that is neither acidic nor basic, a neutral solution, has [H+] = [OH-], so pH = 7.

A more acid solution has pH approaching 1.

A more basic solution has pH approaching 14.

12.3.5 Ionization reaction of carbonic acid¶

H₂O (l) → H+(aq) + OH-(aq) source

2H+(aq) + CO₃₂-(aq) < → H₂CO₃ (aq) carbonic acid source

CO₂ + H₂O < → H₃O⁺+HCO₃^-, K1 = 4.4 × 10-7 source

HCO₃^-+ H₂O < → H₃O⁺+ CO₃₂^-, Ka = 4.7 × 10-11 source

12.3.6 Acid dissociation constant¶

Acid dissociation constant, acidity constant, acid-ionization constant

1. The acid dissociation constant, Ka, measures the strength of an acid in solution.

2. An acid, HA, dissociates into A-, conjugate base, and H+, hydrogen ion (proton).

The equilibrium equation when concentrations do not change is, HA < → A-+ H+. source

3. Dissociation refers to the break up of a molecule into smaller molecules, atoms or ions.

In a buffer solution of the salt of a weak acid with a weak acid, the dissociation of the weak acid is negligible

However, a salt may be dissociated completely into ions.

4. The dissociation constant, Ka is the equilibrium constant of a reversible dissociation including the ionization reactions of acids and bases in water.

The dissociation constant Ka = [A-] [ H+] / [HA] in mol / litre.

5. However, dissociation is usually expressed as a logarithmic constant, pKa, where pKa = -log10 (1/Ka).

It is the quotient of the equilibrium concentrations, in mol/L for ionization reactions at 25 oC.

For pKa, the larger the value the weaker the acid, so strong acids have pKa < 2, and weak acids have pKa >2, < 12.

6. Confusion happens, because both Ka and pKa are sometimes both called "acid dissociation constant"!

The acid dissociation constant, Ka of the acid HB

HB (aq) < → H+(aq) + B-(aq) source

Ka = [H+][B-] / [HB]

Ka is a measure of the degree to which an acid or base will dissociate in water.

Stronger acids have a larger Ka and a smaller pKa than weaker acids.

The greater the value of Ka, the more the formation of H+ is favoured, and the lower the pH of the solution.

12.3.7 Acid dissociation constant at logarithmic scale, pKa¶

pKa = -log10Ka

Strong acids have pKa value < −2.

When the pH of solution is at the value of pKa for a dissolved acid, that acid will be 50% dissociated.

Sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄ → HSO₄^-, pKa -10 source

Hydroiodic acid, HI: HI (g) + H₂O (l) → H₃O+(aq) + I-(aq), pKa -9 source

Hydrobromic acid, HBr: HBr (g) + H₂O (l) → H₃O+(aq) + Br-(aq), pKa -8 source

Perchloric acid, HClO₄: HClO₄ + H₂O → H₃O⁺+ ClO₄^-, pKa -10 source

Hydrochloric acid HCl: HCl (g) + H₂O (l) → H₃O+(aq) + Cl-(aq), pKa -7 source

Hydronium ion, H₃O⁺: H₂O + H₂O < → H₃O⁺+ OH-, pKa -1.74 source

Nitric acid HNO₃: HNO₃ + H₂O → H₃O⁺+ NO₃^-, pKa - 1.3 source

Chloric acid, HClO₃, pKa -1.0: Weak acid has pKa value −2 to 12 in water. source

Acetic acid, CH₃COOH, pKa 4.75 source

12.3.8 Taste of acids¶

BE CAREFUL! NEVER TASTE ACIDS IN THE LABORATORY!

Do NOT taste these acids in the laboratory!

Each acid has a sour taste that is a characteristic of acids.

Lemon juice contains the white crystalline citric acid.

Vinegar contains ethanoic acid, acetic acid, CH₃COOH. source

Experiment

Moisten your finger with a very dilute solution of hydrochloric acid.

Rub your fingers together and then lick them.

Repeat the procedure with very dilute solutions of acetic acid and citric acid.

Do not taste any other acids, because they may damage living tissues.

Citric acid C₆H₈O₇ source

9.1.6, Acetic acid, ethanoic acid, CH₃COOH source

12.3.9 Nitric acid with metals¶

Add slowly small pieces of copper, magnesium and zinc to small amounts of dilute nitric acid in separate test-tubes.

If no change is taking place, gently heat the mixture.

Repeat the procedure, 1. with concentrated nitric acid, 2. with concentrated sulfuric acid, and 3. with concentrated hydrochloric acid.

Reactions of metals with nitric acid and conc. sulfuric acid are different from reactions of metals with HCl, dilute sulfuric acid and dilute acetic acid.

Copper does not react with dilute acids or with concentrated hydrochloric acid.

Copper does react with dilute and concentrated nitric acids and with hot concentrated sulfuric acid.

However, it does not produce hydrogen gas in reaction with them.

Residual mixtures contain solutions of salts.

However, writing equations is difficult, because more than one reaction can occur between Cu, Mg, Zn and nitric acid.

When zinc reacts with nitric acid the reaction may produce nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, zinc nitrate and ammonium nitrate!

12.3.10 Concentrated acids with metals¶

Nitric acid with copper

Nitric acid reacts with metals above platinum in the reactivity series, but does not form hydrogen gas.

BE CAREFUL! DO THIS EXPERIMENT IN A FUME CUPBOARD.

Pour drops of concentrated nitric acid on pieces of copper in a test-tube.

Put a stopper on the test-tube immediately, because brown nitrogen dioxide gas forms.

The nitric acid acts as an oxidizing agent and is reduced to nitrogen dioxide and water.

The reaction is exothermic.

Cu (s) + 4HNO₃ (aq) → Cu(NO₃)₂ (aq) + 2H₂O (l) + 2NO₂ (g) source

12.3.11 Concentrated acids with a non-metals¶

Concentrated acids with a non-metals, carbon

DO NOT DEMONSTRATE THIS EXPERIMENT!

Hot sulfuric acid and nitric acid can react as oxidizing agents with carbon.

Carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide and nitric acid is reduced to nitrogen dioxide and water.

C (s) + 4HNO₃ (aq) → CO₂ (g) + 4NO₂ (g) + 2H₂O (l) source

12.3.12 Acid dissociation constant¶

Acid dissociation constant, acidity constant, acid-ionization constant

1. The acid dissociation constant, Ka, measures the strength of an acid in solution.

2. An acid, HA, dissociates into A-, conjugate base, and H+, hydrogen ion (proton).

The equilibrium equation when concentrations do not change is, HA < → A-+ H+. source

3. Dissociation refers to the break up of a molecule into smaller molecules, atoms or ions.

In a buffer solution of the salt of a weak acid with a weak acid, the dissociation of the weak acid is negligible

However, a salt may be dissociated completely into ions.

4. The dissociation constant, Ka is the equilibrium constant of a reversible dissociation including the ionization reactions of acids and bases in water.

The dissociation constant Ka = [A-] [ H+] / [HA] in mol / litre.

5. However, dissociation is usually expressed as a logarithmic constant, pKa, where pKa = -log10 (1/Ka).

It is the quotient of the equilibrium concentrations, in mol/L for ionization reactions at 25 oC.

For pKa, the larger the value the weaker the acid, so strong acids have pKa < 2, and weak acids have pKa >2, < 12.

6. Confusion happens, because both Ka and pKa are sometimes both called "acid dissociation constant"!

19.1.17 Solid acids, solubility¶

19.1.11 pH of solid acids

19.1.16 Solid acids, add sodium carbonate

19.1.17 Solid acids, solubility

Citric acid

Tartaric acid

Boric acid

Acetyl¶

Acetyl group| −COCH₃ −C(=O)−CH₃, Ac, ethanoyl source

For example: Acetyl-CoA, (acetyl coenzyme A), C₂₃H₃₈N₇O₁₇P₃S source

Amyl¶

Amyl, C₅H₁₁^- source

For example: Amyl nitrate, CH₃(CH₂)₄ONO₂, motor fuel additive source

Abbreviations¶

i.e. (id est) means "that is" or "in other words".

e.g. (exempli gratia) means "for example".

viz. (videlicet) means "namely" or "that is to say".

et al. (et alii) means "and others" or "and collaborators".

q.v. (quod vide) means "which to see", written after words to be looked up in the current document.

ibid. (ibidem) means "in the same place", refers to a previously listed work.

cf. (confer) means to see a given citation for comparison.

Abietic acid¶

Abietic acid, C₂₀H₃₀O₂, sylvic acid, abietate, a diterpenoid, colophony rosin, Greek pitch, a monocarboxylic acid, irritant source

It is a yellow resinous powder, and it is used on violin bows and ballet shoes.

It is a main component of Gums rosin.

It is used to make varnishes, soaps, plastics), most abundant compound in rosin, in Pinus.

Abrin¶

Abrin, as a white yellow powder, is an extremely toxic plant protein that inhibits synthesis of proteins, causes allergic reactions and may be fatal if absorbed through abraded or wounded skin.

Abrin, an agglutinin, occurs in (Abrus precatorius), jequirity bean, Indian licorice seed, crab's eyes.

Albrin (ABR) may cause death of certain cancer cells.

Abrin occurs in the the rosary pea (jequirity pea), (Abrus precatorius).

Abrin, acts as a ribosome-inhibiting protein (RIP) and is a lethal poison.

It is soluble in solutions of sodium chloride, usually with turbidity.

Toxic proteins of abrin are resistant to digestive enzymes, but are destroyed in cooking.

The toxic portion is heat stable to 60 °C for 30 minutes, but at 80 °C most of the toxicity is lost in 30 minutes.

Hazardous polymerization will not occur and it is stable in the environment.

Abrin-a, 1 of the 4 isoabrins from a plant, has the highest inhibitory effect on protein synthesis.

It consists of an A chain of 250 amino acids and a B chain of 267 amino acids.

Absinthin¶

Absinthin, C₃₀H₄₀O₆, a sesquiterpene lactone, a triterpenoid, anti-inflammatory agent, nervousness, convulsions source

It occurs in Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium).

Artemisia absinthium, anthelmintic, flavouring Vermouth, is a bitter-tasting constituent of Absinthe.

Acanthosides¶

Acanthoside B, Eleutheroside e1, C₂₈H₃₆O₁₃, syringaresinol beta-D-glucoside source

It occurs in (Eucommia ulmoides) bark, and in (Acanthopanax sessiliflorus) roots

Acanthoside D, Syringaresinol-di-O-glucoside, Liriodendrin, C₃₄H₄₆O₁₈, beta-D-glucoside, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory source

Acepromazine¶

Acepromazine, C₁₉H₂₂N₂OS, a phenothiazine, psychotropic drugs, used as a sedative and antiemetic source

Alleged overuse of Acepromazine on race horses in Australia.

Acerosin¶

Acerosin, C₁₈H₁₆O₈, is a trimethoxyflavone metabolite. source

It occurs in Scoparia, Iva, Helianthus, Gardenia, Vitex, and in peel of mandarin orange, (Citrus reticulata).

Acesulfame¶

Acesulfame, C₄H₅NO₄S is a sulfamate ester, irritant, sweetening agent, and environmental contaminant. source

Food code E950, Acesulphame potassium, Acesulfame-K, Ace-K, C₄H₄KNO₄S, synthetic chemical, artificial sweetener, Health risk source

Food code E962, salt of aspartame-acesulfame, artificial sweetener, emulsifier, stabilizer, thickener and gelling agent, Health risk

19.6.3 Cola, Diet or Light contents

Acesulfame potassium, C₄H₄KNO₄S, or Ace-K, is a zero-calorie sweetener in foods and drinks. source

It occurs in combination with the sweetener disaccharide derivative Scralose, C₁₂H₁₉Cl₃O₈, in Splenda. source

or in combination with the dipeptide Aspartame, C₁₄H₁₈N₂O₅, in Equal or Coke Zero. source

Acesulfame K is also sold under the brand names "Sunett" and "Sweet One".

The fact that the crystal powder has a bitter aftertaste is the main reason for mixing it in sweeteners.

The mixture of sweeteners is used to create a sugar taste.

Acetaldehyde¶

Acetaldehyde C₂H₄O, CH₃CHO, ethanal, colourless liquid, BP 21°C, choking vapour irritates eyes, tobacco smoke carcinogen. source

16.3.2.7 Ethanal with potassium dichromate

16.3.2.6 Ethanal with potassium manganate (VII)

Acetamide¶

Acetamide, CH₃CONH₂, C₂H₅NO, ethanamide, acetic acid amide, colourless crystals, mouse odour, low toxicity, skin irritation. source

It is formed from condensation of acetic acid with ammonia, and it is used as solvent.

Amide RCONH2, (amine + acid), No prefix

Suffix, -oic, Suffix, -amide, e.g. acetamide = ethanamide, CH₃CONH₂ source

16.1.5.6 Amides

24.7.3 Heat energy changes solid to liquid

24.7.5 Latent heat of fusion of ice to water

Acetates¶

Acetates CH₃COO^-, Ethanoates source

An acetate (ethanoate) is a salt or ester of acetic acid (ethanoic acid).

An acetate as a salt: Sodium acetate (sodium ethanoate), CH₃COONa. source

An acetate as an ester: Ethyl acetate, (ethyl ethanoate), CH3COO(C2H5).

If acetate is shown as OAc−, acetic acid is shown as HOAc.

Weak acids, e.g. ethanoic acid (acetic acid, CH₃COOH, carbonic acid and sulfurous acid dissociate little in aqueous solution. source

However, their salts, e.g. potassium acetate CH₃COOK are completely dissociated into ions. source

Acetic anhydride (CH3CO)2O

3.5.7 Celluloid

3.5.8 Cellulose acetate, Cellulose triacetate

12.3.9 Acids with salts

16.4.2 Ethyl acetate

17.3.5 Ethyl acetate with sodium hydroxide, autocatalyctic hydrolysis

Acetic anhydride¶

Acetic anhydride, (CH3CO)2O, ethanoic anhydride, acetic acid anhydride, acetyl oxide, acetic oxide

Use < 25 mL or g in a fume cupboard or a well-ventilated area

Solution < 8%, Not hazardous, i.e. 8% acetic acid

It is a highly volatile liquid, irritating odour, reacts with moisture in air, corrosive to skin, strong respiratory irritant.

(CH3CO)2O + H₂O → 2 CH₃COOH source

acetic anhydride + water → acetic acid source

You can prepare acetate esters from alcohols by reaction with acetic anhydride.

Reactions with alcohols, oxides, permanganates, nitric acid may be hazardous to explosive. Be careful!

Acetoacetic acid¶

Acetoacetic acid, C₄H₆O₃, CH₃COCH₂COOH, 3-oxobutanoic acid, is a fatty acid. source

It occurs in (Phaseolus vulgaris), and in (Apium graveolense).

16.1.9 Ethyl acetoactonate

16.3.3 Keto acids

19.5.1Tests for ketones

Acetone¶

Acetone, CH₃COCH₃, 2-propanone, a dimethyl ketone, is highly flammable, irritant vapour, slightly toxic if ingested. source

Use low cost, technical grade acetone, from hardware store, as solvent, and to clean glassware.

Acetone ACS reagent, 99.5%, clear colourless volatile liquid, characteristic smell, inflammable

RD 0.79 gm cm-3, BP 56.5oC, miscible with water and ether, and oils sharp sweet taste

Acetone is a curing agent for epoxy resin adhesives, surface coating, irritant.

Use acetone in a fume cupboard or use < 50 mL in a well-ventilated area.

Acetone react violently with chloroform.

Use ethyl acetate or methyl isobutyl ketone as alternative solvent to acetone.

Heat acetone on a water bath, NOTon a naked flame.

Acetone dissolves polystyrene packing pieces rapidly by dissolving the linking units.

Common names: Nail polish remover, (not Australia), e.g. "Cutex", nail paint remover and thinner

It may be sold as "pure acetone".

Junior secondary students should use acetone only as a cold solvent, and they should not heat acetone.

2.3.7 Cleaning agents, solvents

3.1.2 Boiling point of inflammable liquids

12.19.9.7 Bromination of acetone

15.4.16 Potassium dichromate as an oxidizing agent, (See: 5.)

10.12.0 Separate by solvent extraction of oil from peanuts

17.3.7 Oxidation of acetone vapour, copper catalyst

Acetonitrile¶

Acetonitrile, CH₃CN, (acetonitrilo), cyanomethane, methyl cyanide, flammable, colourless liquid, sweet ether-like odour source

It is the simplest organic nitrile and it is toxic if ingested.

Acetonitrile, Solution < 3%, Not hazardous

Acronitrile is used in C₃H₃N acrylics (plastics), vinyl cyanide, cyanoethylene, synthetics, paint. source

Indole-3-acetonitrile C₁₀H₈N₂ source

Acetosyringone¶

Acetosyringone, C₁₀H₁₂O₄, is a phenol, irritant, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory, anti-asthmaticg, non-narcotic analgesic. source

It occurs in (Justicia adhatoda), (Polyporus umbellatus), and in (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).

It occurs in (Nicotiana tabacum) root cultures, exuded from roots, to cause infection by (Agrobacterium tumefaciens).

Acetoxychavicol acetate¶

Acetoxychavicol acetate, C₁₃H₁₄O₄, is a galangal acetate, an acetate ester, a phenylpropanoid, and an antineoplastic agent. source

It occurs in Sweet flag, (Acorus calamus), Acoraceae, and in Snap ginger, (Alpinia calcarata), Zingiberaceae

Acetoxyeugenol acetate¶

Acetoxyeugenol acetate, C₁₄H₁₆O₅, is a phenylpropanoid, a monomethoxybenzene. source

It occurs in Greater galangal, (Alpinia galanga), Zingiberaceae, and in Snap ginger, (Alpinia calcarata), Zingiberaceae

Acetylbrowniine¶

Acetylbrowniine, C₂₇H₄₃NO₈, 14-O-Acetylbrowniine, is an acetate ester obtained by acetylation of browniine, C₂₅H₄₁NO₇. source

Acetyl chloride¶

Acetyl chloride, C₂H₃ClO, CH₃COCl, C₂ClH₃O, ethanoyl chloride, acyl chloride, acetic chloride, has low flash point. source

It is toxic colourless, fuming liquid, pungent odour, vapour heavier than air, irritates eyes and mucous membranes, corrodes metals.

Acetylcholine¶

Acetylcholine C₇H₁₆NO₂⁺, neurotransmitter, stimulates muscle, acetyl ester of choline, is a major transmitter at neuromuscular junctions. source

It occurs in fruit and seed of breadfruit.

9.0, Fruit and seed, (See: 4. Acetylcholine)

Atropine C₁₇H₂₃NO₃, alkaloid source

Nicotine C₁₀H₁₄N₂, alkaloid source

Acetylharpagide¶

Acetylharpagide, C₁₇H₂₆O₁₁, 8-O-Acetylharpagide, iridoid glucoside, ecdysteroid source

Chinese medicine, anti-inflammatory, vasoconstrictor, antibacterial, antiviral, acts on smooth. muscle, inhibits, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV).

It occurs in (Ajuga decumbens), and in (Ajuga reptans).

Acetylpyrrolidine¶

Acetylpyrrolidine, C₆H₁₁NO, 2-Acetylpyrrolidine source

Substituted pyrrolidine, CH₃COC₅H₄N, occurs in malt, popcorn, and beer source

Acetylpyrroline¶

Acetylpyrroline, C₆H₉NO, 2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline (2AP), occurs in jasmati and basmati rice, wheat bread crust, sweet corn. source

It is the white bread smell in cereals, and hot popcorn.

It occurs in screwpine, Pandanus.

Achillin¶

Achillin, C₁₅H₁₈O₃, santolin, sesquiterpene lactone, a guaianolide, plant growth inhibitor source

It occurs in Achillea, and in Artemisia.

Acids¶

7.4.1 Acids

Acid-base indicators

Acid-base neutralization

19.1.1 Acid-base indicators in the home

topic 12E Acid-base neutralization

12.11.4.1 Acid-base neutralization

12.2.1 Acid-base reactions

16.1.5.7 Acid anhydrides

12.3.6 Acid dissociation constants

12.3.7 Acid dissociation constant at logarithmic scale, pKa

12.3.15 Acid dissociation constant at logarithmic scale

1.0.0 Acid fuchsin indicator

Acid rain

12.3.0 Acids, Chemical reactions

19.1.5 Acids in foods, Food acids

1.1 Acids, List of mineral acids

1.2 Acids, List of organic acids

Acids with other substances

Acidic oxides

Acidity

19.1.2 Acidulated water for cooking

12.3.1Amphoteric substances

3.9.0 Carbonic acid, soda water

12.3.5 Concentrated acids, with a non-metal, carbon

12.3.10 Concentrated acids, with metals, H₂SO₄ + Cu source

12.3.12 Concentrated acids with metals, nitric acid with copper

12.3.11 Concentrated acids with a non-metals, carbon

12.3.0 Dilute acids with

12.3.5 Ionization reaction of carbonic acid

12.3.9 Nitric acid with metals

12.3.4 pH

12.3.2 Polyprotic acids

Prepare acids

12.3.1 Properties of acids

12.16.5 Reactions of sulfuric acid

19.1.17 Solid acids, solubility

12.3.3 Strong acids and weak acids

12.11.2 Tests for acid radicals in solution

12.3.17 Taste of acids, solid acids in the home

12.3.8 Taste of acids

12.11.2 Tests for acid radicals in solution

Titration

Acidity¶

Acidity, definition, [degree of being an acid]

Tests for acidity of water

12.11.4.2 Acidity of vinegar and wine

19.1.1 Acidity regulators, food additives

16.1.5 Acidity test, (milk testing)

6.1.0 Soil acidity

Prepare acids¶

5.6.4 Prepare acid-base indicators

3.1 Prepare acid alcohol solution

11.0 Prepare acids and bases, dilution instruction

5.4.7 Prepare dilute acids

3.4.10 Prepare dilute acids and bases, (Safety)

Boric acid, Boracic acid, H₃BO₃ source

12.3.16, Hydroiodic acid, a strong acid

Hydrochloric acid, HCl

12.19.7.0, Hydrofluoric acid, HF

Nitric acid, HNO₃ source

Nitrous acid, HNO₂ source

Phosphoric acid, H₃PO₄ source

Acid rain¶

12.8.11 Acid rain and nitrogen oxides, NOx

12.6.0.1 Acid rain, SOx, from burning S or S compounds

18.6.0 Air pollution

12.19.5.0 CFCs, "Freons"

Acidic oxides¶

12.13.01, Acidic oxides

12.13.6, Carbon dioxide, acidic oxides, (non-metal oxides)

12.13.7, Carbon dioxide, with barium hydroxide solution

12.13.8, Carbon dioxide, with sodium hydroxide solution

12.13.0, Reactions of oxides

Acids with other substances¶

12.3.4 Acids with aluminiums

12.1.18 Acids with baking soda

12.1.25 Acids with sodium carbonate

12.1.40 Acids with sodium thiosulfate

12.14.18 Acids with zinc

12.3.10 Concentrated acids with metals, nitric acid with copper

12.3.11 Concentrated acids with a non-metals, carbon

12.4.0 Dilute acids with

Acridine¶

Acridine, C₁₃H₉N, toxic if ingested and skin contact, give First aid if ingested: Give water, and induce vomiting source

Acridine orange, C₁₇H₁₉N₃, an aminoacridine, hydrochloride salt 'acridine orange', is used to stain cell nuclei, e.g. DNA. source

Acriflavine¶

Acriflavine, C₁₄H₁₄ClN₃, orange-brown, dye and antiseptic source

It shows green fluorescence when diluted in water.

Acroleic acid¶

Acroleic acid, CH₂CHCO₂H, C₃H₄O₂, acrylic acid, propenoic acid, prop-2-enoic acid, Toxic source

It is the simplest unsaturated carboxylic acid.

Acroleic acid, Solution < 5%, Not hazardous, Corrosive, colourless liquid with an acrid odour

It is used in polishes, paints, coatings, rug backings, adhesives, plastics, textiles, and paper.

Polyacrylic acid, cross-linked sodium salt

Polyacrylic acid, water-soluble polyelectrolyte, is used to increase building substances viscosity.

Polyacrylamide powder, superabsorbent, is used to make toy product "Instant Wet Expanding Snow".

Sodium polyacrylate, (C₃H₃NaO₂)n, waterlock, is sold as toy product "Super Expanding Creatures". source

3.1.27 Sodium polyacrylate gels, ghost crystals

Acrolein¶

Acrolein, CH₂CHCHO, CH₂=CHCHO, C₃H₄O, acrylaldehyde, 2-Propenal, ethylene aldehyde, acrylic aldehyde source

It is the simplest unsaturated aldehyde, colourless or yellow liquid, and a toxic chemical.

It has a horrible odour like the smell of burnt fat when glycerol breaks down into acrolein.

Acrolein test for presence of fats: Heat sample with potassium bisulfate → acrolein released source

Acrolein, Solution < 0.1%, Not hazardous, clear, yellowish liquid, sweet, pungent burnt fat smell, highly flammable

It polymerizes in the presence of light or alkali, or strong acids, and is unstable.

It occurs in cigarette smoke and vehicle exhaust, aquatic herbicide, kill algae and waterweeds, and it is used as a pesticide.

Acrylates¶

Acrylates, CH₂=CHCOO−, prop-2-enoates, salts or esters or bases of acrylic acid source

Esters of acrylic acid are commonly called acrylates, e.g. methyl acrylate, CH₂=CHCOOCH₃ source

Mixture of acrylates, acrylate polymer, is a viscous liquid, used as thickener in personal products.

Acrylonitrile¶

Acrylonitrile, CH₂=CH-CN, flammable, low flashpoint, below 32 oC, poison, used to manufacture acrylic acid source

Acryl polymer, generic name for fibres > 85% acrylonitrile units

ABS mixed polymer, acrylonitrile, butadiene, styrene, thermoset plastics:

3.7.28 Polypropenonitrile

16.7.6 Nitriles

4.3.1 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, burning test for synthetic fibres

3.4.2 Chewing gum (Tg)

Actinium Ac¶

Actinium Table of Elements

Actinium RSC

Actinium, Ac, (Greek actinray), refers to light causing chemical change, radioactive, no commercial use.

White radioactive metal, emits a pale blue light, forms coating of actinium oxide to prevent further chemcal reactions

Traces of isotope 227Ac are found in uranium and thorium ores.

12.3.0H Properties of acids¶

Acids are good electrolytes, react with active metals, turn blue litmus red, and have a sour taste.

Dilute acids contain hydrogen ions in aqueous solution.

Represent the hydrogen ion, a proton, in different ways to show how it is related to the water molecules in the solution.

Show it as the hydrated hydrogen ion, [proton, H+(aq)], or as the hydronium ion [oxonium ion, H₃O+(aq)] source

However, for convenience, use H+(aq).

Concentrated sulfuric acid exists mainly as H₂SO₄ molecules. source

Hydrochloric acid and nitric acid dissociate into ions even in concentrated solution.

Weak acids, e.g. ethanoic acid, acetic acid, CH₃COOH carbonic acid and sulfurous acid dissociate very little in aqueous solution. source

However, their salts, e.g. potassium acetate CH₃COOK, are completely dissociated into ions. source

Use the Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases:

An acid donates a proton (H+) to another substance and a base accepts a proton from another substance.

When sulfuric acid dissociates in water it donates a proton (H+) to the water molecule.

In this reaction the water molecule acts as a base.

H₂SO₄ + H₂O → HSO₄^-+ H₃O⁺ source

When ammonia dissolves in water, ammonia accepts a proton and so it is the base.

So in this reaction the water molecule acts as an acid

NH₃ + H₂O < → NH₄⁺+ OH- source

Adhesives¶

Polyurethane adhesives or surface coatings

Hexamethyl diisocyanate, HMDI, irritants

Toluene is a curing agent for epoxy resin adhesives, surface coating, irritant.

Triethylenetetramine, TET, curing agent for epoxy resin adhesive, surface coating, irritant

Xylene, C₈H₁₀, C6H4(C2H6, C₆H₄(CH₃)₂, curing agent for epoxy resin adhesives, surface coating, paint thinner, irritant source

Alkyd resin

3.4.3.1 Epoxy resin polymers, thermoset plastics

2.4.11 Hazard labels

1.3 List of adhesives

Eucalyptus oil

Gelatin, gelatine, gels

Prepare microscopy stains and adhesives

3.3.5 Prepare casein plastic from milk

7.8.8 Prepare gelatine gel

3.3.12 Prepare urea-formaldehyde resin

Ascorbyl palmitate¶

Ascorbyl palmitate, ester of ascorbic acid + palmitic acid, "fat-soluble vitamin C", "vitamin C ester"

An ester of palmitic acid and ascorbic acid, source ot dietary vitamin C, antioxidant food additive

E304 Ascorbyl palmitate

Amantadine¶

Amantadine, C₁₀H₁₇N, is a primary aliphatic amine, anti-viral and anti-Parkinsons medication, causes psychosis. source

Amantadine is an Influenza A M2 Protein Inhibitor.

Alcian blue¶

Alcian blue, C₅₆H₆₈Cl₄CuN₁₆S₄, dye is used for staining of bacteria. source

Prepare alcian blue solution

Ambrein¶

Ambrein, C₃₀H₅₂O, a triterpene alcohol source

It is the main constituent of ambergris found in the sperm whales or floating on the sea as whale barf (vomit), whale spit.

It is separated from ambergris by heating ambergris in alcohol, and is supposed to be an aphrodisiac.

It breaks down to form the diterpenoid ambroxan, C₁₅₆H₂₈O, the main odour component of ambergris. source

Ambergris is supposed to protect the intestines of whales from the sharp beaks of cuttlefish.

It was used for food flavouring and in the perfume industry to prevent aroma from dissipating too quickly.

Since 1970, the perfume industry has turned to substitutes to protect whales.

Amoxycillin¶

Amoxycillin, C₁₆H₁₉N₃O₅S, "Amox", is a penicillin G derivative used as an antibacterial drug. source

It is used for the treatment of pneumonia, infections of the ear, nose and throat, genitourinary tract, the skin and respiratory tract.

It leads to higher serum concentrations than ampicillin.

9.6.0 Penicillium

Artecanin¶

Chrysartemin B, C₁₅H₁₈O₅, is a sesquiterpene lactone, and insect antifeedant. source

It occurs in (Artemisia cana), and in (Chrysanthemum macropjyllum).

Silver sagebush, (Artemisia cana)

Aminoethylethanolamine¶

Aminoethylethanolamine, C₄H₁₂N₂O, AEEA, is a surfactant, fabric softener, fuel additive.

19.4.4 Surfactants

Aminophenol¶

Aminophenol, H2N(C6H4OHH, 4-hydroxyanaline, is a black-and-white film developer.

Metol

Amitriptyline¶

Amitriptyline, C₂₀H₂₃N, damitriptyline, triptanol, a tertiary amine, is a popular tricyclic antidepressant, (TCA), called 'ELAVIL'. source

Amyl alcohol¶

Amyl alcohol,, C₅H₁₂O, CH₃(CH₂)₃CH₂OH, isoamyl alcohol, has 8 isomers, but 1-pentanol is usually used in solvents. source

Isoamyl alcohol is a colourless liquid with a mild, choking alcohol odour, antifungal agent.

It occurs in (Ambrosiozyma monospora), and in (Humulus lupulus).

Anacardic acid¶

Anacardic acid, C₂₂H₃₀O₃, (6-Pentadecylsalicylic acid), Ginkgolic acid. source

Hydroxybenzoic acid, C₂₂H₃₆O₃, mixture of salicylic acid substitutes with alkyl chains source

Anacyclin¶

Anacyclin, C₁₈H₂₅NO, fatty amide, dynamide, insecticidal source

It occurs in (Anacyclis pyrethrum), and Achillea roots.

Anaesthetic ether¶

Anaesthetic ether, (C2H5)2O, C₄H₁₀O, CH₃CH₂OCH₂CH₃, diethyl ether, ethoxyethane, "ether" source

It is a colourless, sweet-smelling, flammable liquid

It was used as an anesthetic, but is now used as a solvent.

It occurs in (Basella alba) and in (Acca sellowiana).

Analar reagents¶

Analar reagents are sold as high purity chemical, 'Analar' Standards for Laboratory Chemicals, usually 99.99% pure.

Andrastin¶

Andrastin A, C₂₈H₃₈O₇, a methyl carboxylate, occurs in Penicillium. source

Andrastin C, C₂₈H₄₀O₆, a methyl carboxylate, occurs in Penicillium. source

Androne¶

Androne, magnesium perchlorate, Mg(ClO₄)₂, oxidizing agent, exothermic with water, Toxic, Corrosive source

Angle tube syringe¶

Angle tube syringe, Collect gas with an angle-tube syringe

Anodyne¶

Anodyne is a compound used to ease pain, e.g. Tetrahydropalmatine, (THP), C₂₁H₂₅NO₄, from Corydalis. source

Anolyte water¶

Anolyte water, anolyte solution, hypochlorous acid, HOCl, destroys bacterial cell membranes, anthracnose

Anthracycline¶

Anthracycline antibiotics, Anthracyclines, anti-cancer drugs from some Streptomyces, cardiotoxic

Aquavit¶

Aquavit, "eau de vie", whisky, usquebaugh (Irish whisky), is popular in northern Europe.

It may contain caraway seed or dill seed oil

Arnicolide¶

Arnicolide, dihydrohenalanin acetate, C₁₉H₂₄O₅, a methacrylate, cytotoxic, antitumour source

It occurs in (Arnica montana).

Aspecioside¶

Aspecioside, C₂₉H₄₂O₁₀, cardenolide, cardenoside glycoside, steroidal toxins, in Asciepias source

Aspiration¶

Aspiration, transfer of liquids by sucking, using aspirator instrument or apparatus

-ate¶

The most common oxygen anion, e.g. nitrate NO₃^- and -ite suffix, one O fewer, e.g. nitrite NO₂^- source

Auriculoside¶

Auriculoside, C₂₂H₂₆O₁₀, CNS depressant, flavon glycoside source

It occurs in (Acacia auriculiformis).

Avenasterol¶

Avenasterol, C₂₉H₄₈O, Ethylidenelathosterol, Dehydroavenasterol,, used in salad oils, e.g. canola oil source

It occurs in Amaranthus.

Adipic acid¶

Adipic acid, CH2)4(COOH)2, HOOC(CH₂)₄COOH, butanedicarboxylic acid, hexanedioic acid, pleasant, fruity flavour source

In juice of beetroot Beta vulgaris and many plants, irritates eyes and throat, used as gelling food acidulant

Adipic acid, colourless needles (used to make nylon 6, 6 (Bri nylon), polyester resin, urethane foam.

E355 Adipic acid, food acid E355, used as a gelling adhesive

9.1.4 Dicarboxylic acids

3.3.7 Prepare nylon polymer

Adjugarin¶

Adjugarin I, C₂₄H₃₄O₇, diterpenoid, a butenolide, a clerodane, insect antifeedant, in Ajuga remota leaves source

Adjugarin II, C₂₂H₃₂O₆, diterpenoid, insect antifeedant, in Ajuga remota leaves source

Aerobic¶

7.4.2 Aerobic

9.2.0 Aerobic Respiration

8.3.6 Gram-negative anaerobic cocci

8.3.3 Gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci

Aerogel¶

Porous synthetic substance, "frozen smoke", aerosol, (fogs), e.g. metal oxide aerogels

7.8.15 Prepare sunbeam mists

Agar¶

Agar, agar agar, agar powder, nutrient agar (beef broth + agar), tablets, powder, is a jelly-like substance from red seaweed.

Macassar gum, gelatinous substance, E406, from red algae, is a vegetable gum, thickener, and emulsifier.

It is sold as "Agar agar seaweed powder" for home cooking, and as "Agar, microbiology tested powder", for laboratory experiments.

16.1.12 Polysaccharide gums

Prepare agar media and nutrient solutions

7.8.11 Gels in the home kitchen

11.5.5 Movement of ions, sodium sulfate solution

9.1.1.6 Rotting banana and rotting grass

Agmatine¶

Agmatine, C₅H₁₄N₄, primary amino compound, a guanidine source

It is used to treat neuropathy, diabetes, and decreased kidney function.

It occurs in ragweed pollen, ergot fungi, mammalian brain, soya bean, sesame seeds, barley, and in Indian pea, (Lathyrus sativus).

Sesame, (Sesamum indicum)

Ajugasterone C¶

Ajugasterone C, C₂₇H₄₄O₇, a steroid, a phytosterol, in Vitex madiensis root bark, insect moulting hormone source

It occurs in Rough fingerleaf, (Vitex madiensis), Lamiaceae.

Ajugalactone¶

Ajugalactone, C₂₉H₄₀O₈, phytosterol, steroid lactone, hydroxy steroid, phytoecdysteroid, insect moulting hormone, in Ajuga source

Bugle, (Ajuga reptans), Lamiaceae

Albumen, Albumin¶

Albumen, Albumin

Egg white

Alcohol test (Milk testing): 16.1.3H

Luminol tests for blood, (serum albumin): 14.25

Fibrous proteins and globular proteins: 16.6.0 (See: 2. 3.)

Pasteurization of milk: 19.2.10

Tests for albumin and gelatine: 9.3.2

Tests for proteins: 9.4.1, albumin

1. Albumen is egg white, white of an egg, albumen flakes, albumen egg powder.

2. Albumin is any protein soluble in water and can be coagulated by heat.

3. Albumin soluble protein in blood serum, serum albumin in blood serum

Alphlactalbumin in milk, a globular protein

Albumin from bovine serum is sold as Bovine Serum Albumin, and Bovine Plasma Albumin (BSA).

Albumin from humans is sold as Albumin, Human, tested negative for HIV and HBSAG, [surface antigen of hepatitis B virus (HBV)].

"Alcohol"¶

Alcohol, ethanol, ethyl alcohol, "alcohol", grain alcohol, C₂H₆O, CH₃CH₂OH, is used for histology and cytology procedures. source

Ethanol is a clear colorless liquid with a characteristic odour and pungent taste.

Alcohols, absolute alcohol, 95% alcohol, hospital alcohol, denatured alcohol

Alcohols, List of alcohols: 1.4

Alcohol drinking

23.8.0 Alcohol lamp, Spirit burner

16.1.3H Alcohol test, (milk testing)

16.1.4H Alcohol alizarin test, (milk testing)

16.6.0 Alcohols, phenols, thiols

"Alcohol", Ethanol, ethyl alcohol

15.2.11 Breath tests

4.3.15 Prepare alcohol using immobilized yeast cells

Aldehydes¶

Aldehydes, alkanals, -CHO, R-CH=O, Prefix, formyl-, Suffix, -al

16.3.0 Aldehydes, alkanals

Acrolein

3.8.5, Amino-plastics

Benzaldehyde

Butyraldehyde, butanal

16.3.2.1, Chloral, chloral hydrate

Cinnamaldehyde

16.3.2.2, Decanal

Acetaldehyde, Ethanal

Formaldehyde

Furfural

Prepare glutaraldehyde solution

Metaldehyde

Paraldehyde

Propionaldehyde

16.3.2.3, Nonanal

Aldehydes, alkanals: 16.3.2.0

Aldehydes, List of aldehydes, -CHO, suffix -al: 1.5

Oxidation of glucose, blue bottle experiment: 9.3.10a

Oxidation of methanol to methanal: 16.3.2.8

Prepare ethanal with potassium dichromate: 16.3.2.7

Prepare ethanal with potassium manganate (VII)16.3.2.6

Prepare formaldehyde-acetic acid alcohol, FAA, solution

Prepare formaldehyde solution

Prepare formal saline solution

Prepare glutaraldehyde solution

Prepare urea-formaldehyde resin: 3.3.12

Tests for aldehydes with Fehling's solution: 9.5.2

Tests for aldehydes, Tollens' test: 9.3.3

Tests for oxidation of glucose: 9.3.7.2, blue bottle experiment

Tests for aldehydes with Fehling's solution: 9.142.2

Tests for aldehydes9.3.7.3, Tollens' test

Alditols¶

Alditols Alditols, polyhydric alcohols, mannitol, General formula, HOCH₂[CH(OH)]nCH2OH source

Mannitol, C₆H₁₄O₆, CH₂OH(CHOH)₄CH₂OH, from mannose or fructose, sugar in fungi and brown algae, food sweetener source

Sold as D-Mannitol, Mannite, C₆H₁₄O₆ source

Aliphatic¶

Aliphatic, unsaturated carbon compounds

Unlike aromatic compounds, aliphatic compounds have an open-chain structure which may be as follows:

1. Saturated (all single bonds, alkanes), CnH2n+2, e.g. methane (the simplest hydrocarbon), CH₄ source

Methane

2. Unsaturated (double bonds, alkenes), CnH2n, e.g. ethene, C₂H₄, H₂C=CH₂ source

16.4.5 Ethene, (ethylene), C₂H₄ source

3. Unsaturated (triple bonds, alkynes), CnH2n-2, e.g. ethyne (acetylene), C₂H₂ source

16.4.6, Ethyne, (acetylene), C₂H₂ source

Alizarin¶

Dihydroxy anthraquinone, C₁₄H₈O₄, (1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone), alizarin, Toxic, aluminium ion indicator source

Alcohol alizarin test (Milk tests): 16.1.4

Alizarin red

Alizarin yellow R, acid-base indicator

Prepare alizarin solution

Prepare alizarin red S indicator solution

Alkali¶

Alkali (Arabic, al-kalī, calcined ashes)

An alkali is water-soluble base yielding a caustic solution, pH > 7.

In the later eighteenth century, the word "alkali" referred to any potash needed for glass and soap manufacture

The "alkali" needed for making soap was formerly produced by burning wood charcoal or dried seaweed

Alkali

12.1.0 Bases, alkalis

Acidity and alkalinity: 18.1.0.1

Alkali feldspars35.2.7, (See: Group 1.)

Alkaline iodide, 500 g NaOH, 135 g NaI, 10 g NaN₃ in 1 L of water, Toxic source

Alkalis with zinc: 12.14.19

Alkaline battery: 33.6.13

Prepare alkalis: 5.4.3

Reactions of chlorine with alkalis, bleaching powder: 12.4.15

Storing alkalis, ammonia solution: 3.7.3

Tests for concrete alkalinity: 34.2.6

Alkannin¶

Alkannin, C₁₆H₁₆O₅, napthoquinone derivative, E103 food colouring, but is no longer approved. source

It occurs in Dyer's alkanet, (Alkanna tinctoria), as alkanet root extract

Alkyd resin¶

Alkyd resin, is any synthetic polyester resin prepared from a dicarboxylic acid, used in paints and adhesives.

Adhesive and coating resins are made from glycerol and unsaturated organic acids.

Rigid cross-linked polymers are formed when there are more than two functional groups on linear chain monomers.

Alkyd resins: polybasic acid + polyhydric alcohol, e.g. phthalic anhydride + glycerol.

They are used in paint enamels and making dentures.

They are sold for temporary denture repair and teeth repair.

Alkyl group¶

Alkyl groups come from taking away a hydrogen atom from an alkane

For example, methane CH₄ becomes the alkyl called methyl CH₃^-, the smallest alkyl group, and ethane, C₂H₆, become ethyl C₂H₅^- source

If alkanes are shown R-H, then the R stands for an alkyl group, with name ending in -yl.

Alkyls are saturated hydrocarbons, because all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds.

Alkylation¶

Alkylation is replacing a hydrogen on a cyclic compound with an alkyl, (CH₃), or longer chain group. source

It is formed by heating isobutane with the lower boiling point alkenes, (C3-C6), under acid conditions.

Add the isobutane to the alkene to form a larger branched alkane, converting lower boiling gas fractions into high octane fractions.

Alkylation, Distil crude oil, collect fractions, composition of petroleum: 10.6.3

Alkyne group

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a triple bond and with the general formula (R1-CCR2), (CnH2n-2), e.g. acetylene.

Prefix: alkynl-, Suffix: -yne, (no principal functional group)

Alkynes are also called "acetylenes".

Allotropes¶

Allotropes of the same element may have different bonding structure and crystal structure and so have different properties.

Sulfur has 3 allotropes, rhombic or α sulfur, monoclinic or β sulfur, and plastic sulfur

Carbon has different bonding and crystal structure in the allotropes graphite and diamond

Graphite is slippery, because weak van der Waals' forces between the flat layers allow them to slide over each other.

So graphite is used as a dry lubricant in machinery and in "lead" pencils.

Diamond has a very MP and is extremely hard, because strong chemical bonds hold carbon atoms into a rigid three-dimensional structure.

It is a network solid with a tetrahedral arrangement, making it chemically unreactive.br> However, diamond is a poor conductor of electricity, because the electrons are held in relatively fixed positions around the carbon atoms.

7.4.4 Allotropes, sulfur, carbon

Brass, Bronze

Coins

Constantan

7.2.1 Classify substances, pure substances, mixtures, solutions

7.2.2.1 Elements, Actinium to Zirconium

5.1.12 Eutectic mixture

German silver

Gold alloys

Manganin

11.2.9 Metallic bonds

Metglas

Misch metal

Nichrome alloy, nichrome wire

5.5.15 Nitinol memory wire

29.1.2.8 Permalloy bar

Pinchbeck

7.5.0 Prepare forms of sulfur, allotropes of sulfur

34.8.7 Shape memory alloy, Nitinol

3.63 Shape memory alloy, Nitinol

Speculum metal, alloy of brass or copper with tin, polished to make telescope reflective surfaces or mirrors

Alizarin red¶

A dihydroxyanthraquinone, Alizarin red S, C₁₄H₈O₇S, is a biological stain, and is used as a histological dye. source

It occurs as is a laxative in Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), Rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum), and in Senna (Senna alexandrina)

Anthraquinone occurs in plant pigments, bird repellents, and causes the yellow colour of lichens.

Usually, "anthraquinone", refers to (9,10-anthraquinone), and is also called (9,10-dioxoanthracene).

Anthraquinone-2-sulfonate, sodium anthraquinone-2-sulfonate, harmful if ingested

See diagram Anthraquinone2: Anthraquinone

Anthraquinone derivatives occur in Barbados aloe (Aloe vera), Buckthorn, (Rhamnus cathartica), Rhubarb, (Rheum rhabarbarum), and Senna, (Senna alexandrina)

Chrysophanol, Aloe emodin, Emodin, Physcion, Rhein

Anthraqinone glycosides, (aglycone from anthraquinone)

Alizarin, C₁₄H₈O₄ source

Hypericin, C₃₀H₁₆O₈ source

Physcion, C₁₆H₁₂O₅ source

Anthraquinone derivatives

(1.) 1-nitroanthraquinone, C₁₄H₇NO₄, (1-nitroanthracene-9, 10-dione) source

(2.) 2-anthraquinone sulfonic acid, C₁₄H₈O₅S source

(3.) 1-8-dinitroanthraquinone, C₁₄H₆N₂O₆, waxoline violet source

(4.) Natural pigment, Acid Blue 43, C₁₄H₉N₂NaO₇S source

(5) Alizarine Light Blue, (sodium amino hydroxy anthracene sulfonate), wool dye

(6) Vat Violet 1, C₃₄H₁₄Cl₂O₂, (many synonyms), gasoline blue colorant source

(7) Disperse Red 60, C₂₀H₁₃NO₄, Samaron, Pink, deep red powder with white specks, fabric dye source

Anthraquinone laxatives

They act on the intestinal mucosa, increasing peristalsis of the colon, and reducing transit time in the colon.

1. Aloe, (Aloe barbadensis).

2. Senna, (Cassia).

3. Turkey rhubarb, (Rheum palmatum).

4. Cascara sagrada> (Rhamnus purshiana).

5. Yellow dock, (Rumex crispus).

Prepare carmine stain

Allyl¶

Allyl, CH₂=CHCH₂^-, allyl resin source

Allyl alcohol, C₃H₆O, CH₂=CHCH₂OH, (2-propen-1-ol), Highly toxic by all routes source

Allyl alcohol, Solution < 3%, Not hazardous

Allyl bromide, CH₂=CHCH₂Br, 1-bromoprop-2-ene, 3-bromopropene, acrid smell, Toxic by all routes source

Allyl chloride, CH₂, CHCH₂Cl, 3-chloropropene, (plastics production), Toxic by all routes source

Allyl chloride, Solution < 0.1%, Not hazardous

Allyl disulfide, diallyl disulfide, C₆H₁₀S₂, in distilled oil of garlic source

Allyl mercaptan: 16.9.1

Allyl isothiocyanate, C₄H₅NS, occurs in horseradish (Armoracia rusticana). source

Allyl methyl sulfide¶

Allyl methyl sulfide, CH₂=CHCH₂SCH₃, methyl allyl sulfide, colourless liquid, strong odour source

Occurs in garden onion, and garlic.

Dimethyl allyl, Isohumulone, C₂₁H₃₀O₅: 16.2.3 source

Aloesin¶

Aloesin, C₁₉H₂₂O₉, aloesin, alocresin, glycoside, C-glycosylated chromone, inhibits tyrosinase, used as a skin lightener. source

Khellin, C₁₄H₁₂O₅, visammin, amicardine, methafrone, is an organic heterotricyclic compound, herbal folk medicine, and vasodilator. source

It was also used as a bronchodilator, anti-asthmatic agent, cardiovascular, used to treat angina pectoris, and asthma.

It occurs in Barbados aloe, (Aloe vera), Asphodelaceae, and in (Ammi visnaga), Umbelliferae.

Alpha¶

Alpha hydroxy acids: 16.3.1

Alpha, α-naphthol tests for carbohydrates, Molisch's test: 9.3.7

Alpha, α-naphthol, Naphthol: 16.1.3.2.2

Alpha, α-carotene, vitamin A: Alpha-carotene

Alpha-Hederin, triterpenoid saponin

Alpha radiation , α radiation

Allantoin¶

Allantoin, C₄H₆N₄O₃, 5-Ureidohydantoin, glyoxyldiureide, an imidazolidine-2, 4-dione, vulnerary. source

It is a product of uric acid oxidation, marker of oxidative stress, used for healing wounds, soothing, anti-irritating, skin irritations, anti-acne, clarifying lotion.

It is used in toothpaste, mouthwash, oral hygiene products, shampoos, lipsticks, cosmetic lotions, face creams.

It occurs in urine of most mammals and humans, and in comfrey, (Symphytum officinale).

Aloe emodin¶

Aloe emodin, C₁₅H₁₀O₅, has strong stimulant-laxative action, and is antitumour, genotoxic, mutagenic. source

It occurs in aloe latex resin exudate from Barbados aloe, (Aloe vera), Asphodelaceae and in bark of Buckthorn, (Rhamnus cathartica), Rhamnaceae, and in Rhubarb, (Rheum rhabarbarum), Polygonaceae.

It also occurs in bark. and in green vegetables.

Aloin¶

Aloin, C₂₁H₂₂O₉, anthaquinone glucoside, barbaloin, anthracycline, anthraquinone glycosyl, C-glucoside, bitter, yellow-brown. source

It protects against tumours, toxic anticancer drugs, blood vessel development in tumours, and supports pigment formation.

The leaves are used for wound healing, and inhibits blood vessel formation.

It occurs in Barbados aloe, (Aloe vera), Asphodelaceae.

Aloenin¶

Aloenin, C₁₉H₂₂O₁₀, Aloearbonaside, is a bitter glucoside. source

It occurs in (Aloe arborescens), (A. africana), and in (A. camperi).

Alstonine¶

Alstonine, C₂₁C₂₀N₂O₃, neoplasm inhibitor, in Alstonia constricta, in Rauwolfia hirsuta, in Vinca rosea source

Amber¶

Amber, C₁₂H₂₀O, is a substance, a colour and a smell, (See: Ezekiel 1/27, King James Bible). source

Amber is a pure chroma colour, midway between yellow and orange colour, or gold and orange.

Copper feels colder than amber against the cheek, because copper is a better conductor of heat.

Droplet bottles, glass dropper with screw cap and plastic teat, 50 mL, amber, clear (amber colour).

Rosin is a solid amber residue made by the distillation of turpentine, using pine stumps.

Fog lamps may have an amber-coloured lens, but the beam does not give more visibility or penetration than a white beam.

Urine has a yellow-amber colour.

Amber, C₁₂H₂₀O, succinite source

35.3.8 Amber mineral

16.4.0 Oleoresins, balsams, "gums", Amber resin, (See: 4.)

17.2.2 Briggs-Rauscher oscillating reaction, clock reaction, (amber colour)

16.1.4 Butanedioic acid, spirit of amber

19.1.3 Perfumes and smells, Fragrances used in women's toiletries, (amber smell)

31.1.02 Triboelectric series, electrostatic series, ranking of insulators, (See: 21. Amber rod)

38.5.26 Traffic lights, (British traffic lights are red over amber over green).

Ambrettolic acid¶

Ambrettolic acid, C₁₆H₃₀O₃, HO(CH₂)₈-CH=CH-(CH2)5COOH, in musk seed oil, cis and trans forms are used in the perfume industry. source

Americium, Am¶

Americium, Am

Americium, Table of the Elements

Americium, RSC

Americium, Am (America,) (said as: "amer-ee-sium"), radioactive actinide, Am 241 is an isotope in nuclear waste.

It is used in smoke detectors, because Americium ionizes atoms of air producing highly ionizing alpha particles.

32.3.4.4 Ionization by radioactivity, smoke alarms

Amylose¶

Amylose, C₁₄H₂₆O₁₁, polysaccharide, alpha-D-glucose units bonded together by glycosidic bonds, about 20% of starch, resistant starch. source

The linear macromolecules are converted into maltose, branched chains are converted into dextrin.

Starches have different granular sizes and enzyme digestibility depending on the amylopectin and amylose and how they are arranged in the starch granule.

Tests for amylose and amylopectin: 9.3.4H

Amylopectin¶

Amylopectin, C₃₀H₅₂O₂₆, highly branched polymer of glucose, about 80% of starch, insoluble in water, formed of 2, 000 to 200, 000 glucose units source

Tests for amylose and amylopectin: 9.3.4H

Aluminon¶

1. Aluminon, C₂₂H₂₃N₃O₉, triammomium aurine tricarboxylate, triammonium salt of aurintricarboxylic acid (dye detects Al3+), Toxic if ingested source

2. Organic reagent, "Aluminon", 0.1% aqueous solution

To 5 mL of slightly acidic solution add ammonium acetate solution, then reagent.

A red colour or precipitate indicates presence of aluminium.

Use Group III precipitate dissolved in dilute HCl Iron also gives positive test, so aluminium cannot be shown in its presence.

Chromium gives positive test, but may be removed by ammonia and ammonium.

3. Alizarin, 1,2-dihydroxyAnthraquinone, Toxic (aluminium ion indicator).

Amlodipine¶

Amlodipine, C₂₀H₂₅ClN₂O₅, is a synthetic dihydropyridine and a calcium channel blocker with antihypertensive and antianginal properties. source

It is a monochlorobenzene, an ethyl ester, a methyl ester and a primary amino compound.

Amlodipine inhibits the influx of extracellular calcium ions into myocardial and peripheral vascular smooth muscle cells.

It prevents vascular and myocardial contraction.

It has a role as an antihypertensive agent, a calcium channel blocker and a vasodilator agent.

Amlodipine besilate, C₂₆H₃₁ClN₂O₈S, Amlodipine benzenesulfonate, is a second generation calcium channel blocker. source

It is used to treat hypertension and angina pectoris.

Ammonia¶

Ammonia, NH₃ source

Ammonia with sulfuric acid: 12.11.4.3

Ammonium minerals, (Geology)

Prepare sunbeam mists: 7.8.15, ammonium chloride

Storing alkalis: 3.7.3, ammonia solution

Tests for ammonia: 3.5.0

Prepare ammonia and ammonium compounds: 3.7.0

Prepare ammonia solution: 5.4.4

QAC: 18.1.15 (quaternary ammonium compounds:

Reduce nitrate to ammonia: 12.11.2.2

Reaction of ammonium carbonate with ethanoic acid: 14.4.4

Reaction of ammonium nitrate with water: 14.4.1

z Reaction of ammonium salts and potassium salts with water:

14.4.2z

Anisaldehyde¶

Anisaldehyde, C₈H₈O₂, 4-methoxybenzaldehyde, anisic aldehyde, irritant, insect repellent, in human urine. source

It occurs in (Brunneoporus juniperinus), and in (Decalepis hamiltonii).

Anisic acid¶

Anisic acid, C₈H₈O₃, 4-methoxybenzoic acid, a phenolic acid, irritant. source

It occurs in Aniseed, (Pimpinella anisum), Apiaceae Rhododendron 'Mid winter', (Rhododendron dauricum), Ericaceae and (Aconitum forrestii), Ranunculaceae.

Aminopropane¶

1-aminopropane, n-propyl amine, propylamine, C2H5CH2NH2, weak base, colourless volatile liquid
2-aminopropane, isopropylamine, propan-2-amne CH3)2CHNH2, hygroscopic colourless liquid, smells like ammonia, used to prepare pesticides.

Amphoteric¶

7.4.5 Amphoteric

12.1.5 Alkalis with amphoteric oxides and hydroxides

13.1.10 Aluminium oxide

12.4.2 Dilute acids with amphoteric oxides

12.13.4 Oxides

16.6.0 Proteins are amphoteric, (See: 4.).

Amyrin¶

Amyrin, C₃₀H₅₀O, beta-amyrin, beta-amyrenol, pentacyclic triterpenoid, secondary alcohol source

It is the most commonly occurring triterpenoid in higher plants.

Andrographolide¶

Andrographolide, C₂₀H₃₀O₅, labdane diterpenoid, andrographolide lactone, extremly bitter, anti-inflammatory. source

It causes anti-platelet aggregation, decreased proliferation of tumor cells and increased immunocytotoxicity against them.

Andrographis paniculata Extract (HMPL-004) is used to treat bacillary dysentery, upper respiratory tract infections, inflammatory diseases.

Andrographolideoc occurs in King of bitters (Andrographis paniculata), Acanthaceae.

See diagram 16.3.1.4Dch: Andrographolide

Antacids¶

Antacids increase pH in stomach contents as medicines for reflux, e.g. sodium hydrogen carbonate, magnesium oxide

Aluminium hydroxide (1-water), bauxite (antacids) 500 g, E173 (food additive)

E552 Calcium silicate (anti-caking agent) (Antacid)

E341 Calcium phosphate (mineral salt) (Antacid, enamel polishing agent)

E504 Magnesium carbonate (mineral salt, anti-caking agent) (Antacid, laxative)

9.2.2 Reflux and heartburn

Sodium hydrogen carbonate, used in antacids

Topics¶

Acid-base indicators

Acid-base neutralization

Chemicals in the home

Chemistry Tests

Chemistry terminology

Chemistry Terminology

Chemistry of alkalis

Chemistry of food

Chemistry of halogens

Colloids and crystalloids

Crystals and polymers

Dairy products

Electrolysis

Environmental chemistry

International System of Units

Organic chemistry, Amines to Proteins

Science, Maths, Technology

This page was generated automatically from the original page on John Elfick's School Science Lessons website. If something looks wrong, please check the original.