Improve growing of bananas, cassava, and chilli.

School Science Lessons
2023-12-18
Please send comments to: johnelfick@hotmail.com
(Foodgardens5.html)

Agricultural crops
Table of contents
5.0 Agricultural crops
5.1 Allium species
5.2 Beetroot
5.3 Cryopreservation of avocado shoot tips, by Chris O’Brien
5.4 Legumes, peas and beans
5.5 Maize
5.6 Mango
5.8 Wheat

5.1 Allium species, Amaryllidaceae
(Latin allium garlic), (Latin Allium sativum cultivated garlic), (Greek aleo, to avoid, the smell of garlic)
How to grow Allium, Yates
Bunching onion
Chinese scallions
Chives
Garlic
Garlic chives
Leek
Onion
Rocambole
Scallion
Shallot
Spring onion
Tree onion

Bunching onion, (Allium fistulosum), Japanese bunching onion, Welsh onion, long green onion, spring onion, (kind of scallion), perennial, no bulbs, hollow leaves, Asian cuisine, miso soup, ornamental, Amaryllidaceae

Chinese scallions, (Allium chinense), rakkyo, Chinese onion, Asian cooking, folk medicine, Amaryllidaceae
Rakkyo Chinese Scallions, Allium chinense, Mudbrick Herb Cottage.

Chives, (Allium schoenoprasum), onion chives, perennial, up to 30 cm, grow in clumps, edging plants, grow in containers, insect pest repellent, companion plant, cut soft leaves often, leaves and pom-pom flowers edible, mild onion flavour, store in freezer, culinary uses, scrambled eggs, leaves in salads, meats, sandwiches, cream cheese, Hong Kong dumplings "dow choi", herbal medicine, rich in vitamins and minerals, Amaryllidaceae
Chives, Allium schoenoprasum, Mudbrick Herb Cottage, See text below Description.
See diagram: Chives.

Garlic, (Allium sativum var. sativum), cultivated garlic
4.7.2 Garlic spray, (Agriculture)
A garlic "clove" is single swollen storage leaves surrounding the shoots and the smell of fresh garlic is caused by the organosulfur compound | Allicin |.
Garlic has strong anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties, has strong garlic odour, insoluble in water, soluble in oils, inhibits moulds and bacteria, skin and stomach-lining irritant, causes garlic allergy, soak well in lemon juice before storing under oil, but may turn blue-green, garlic breath cause by | Methanethiol | in the mouth and | Allyl methyl sulfide | from the digestive system, culinary uses, stews, omelettes, with lamb, is sold as granules, ground garlic, Amaryllidaceae
All these compounds are said to have health benefits owing to their anticlotting, antifungus, antibacterial and antioxidant properties.
However, garlic should be eaten in oil preparations, e.g. olive oil, or cooked.
Be careful! Raw garlic may damage the digestive system and do not use garlic if taking anticoagulants or before surgery.
Garlic is infected by multiple viruses and so it is difficult to get virus-free garlic anywhere in the world.
There can be up to 10 or 12 viruses in infected plants and most garlic plants would have at least six viruses.
All Australian commercial garlic varieties have viruses, which does not seem to affect taste or nutrition, but does have an impact on the crop yield.
Superior and inferior garlic plants share the same viral profile.
Garlic is a vegetatively propagated crop, and once it has been infected, all the progeny are infected.
Breeding selections over generations may get three times the yield from the best selections.
Oil of garlic contains diallyl disulfide, diallyl trisulfide and diallyl tetrasulfide.
When a clove of garlic, Allium sativum, is crushed, the enzyme allinase acts on alliin to produce unstable allicin, which degrades to diallyl sulfide, and other sulfur compounds.
In distilled oil of garlic, Diallyl disulfide, can also be prepared by steam distillation.
Allinase is an enzyme active in chopped or crushed garlic.
Alliin + Allinase enzyme --> Allicin (decomposes) --> Diallyl disulfide.
Garlic contains alliin lyase and alliin, which is converted by alliin lyase to allicin, the pungent ingredient responsible for the aroma of fresh cut garlic.

Garlic chives, (Allium tuberosum), Chinese chives, perennial, hardy plant, up to 30 cm, flat leaves, culinary uses, garlic flavour, attractive white flowers, leaves and green flower buds used in Asian cooking, herbal medicine, Amaryllidaceae
Garlic Chives, Allium tuberosum, Mudbrick Herb Cottage, See text below Description.
See diagram: Garlic chives.

Onion, (Allium cepa)
Allium species, Amaryllidaceae
9.1.12 Disinfectants, antiseptics and antibiotics
9.6.13 Mitosis in cells of onion root tip
9.1.11 Onion leaf scale cells, onion leaf epidermis, bulb
#9.3.6 Plasmolysis in onion epidermis
2.5.8 Stain onion epidermis
Onion, (Allium cepa), common onion, bulb onion, spring onion, Amaryllidaceae
Dried herb is sold as bulb flakes and bulb powder.
Different onions
1. Sweet onions have the least amount of the sulfur compounds that give onions their strong flavour, but with all of the sugars.
A thick slice can be used in hamburgers or for onion rings.
They are not used to create a base flavour for stews. because they do not have a strong enough flavour.
They are the most expensive bulb onions.
2. Red onions are less strong then yellow and white onions with a bit of sweetness, but still strong then sweet onions.
They can be used raw in hamburgers, salads, salsa, and slow cooking dishes.
They are cheaper them sweet onions, but more expensive then white or yellow onions.
3.White onions are the best general purpose onion, so can be used in salsa, salads and slow-cooked dishes.
Use raw, sliced thin or chopped fine and in onion rings.
4. Yellow onions are best used for cooking and are the cheapest bulb onion.
5. Scallions or spring onions are young onions that have yet to develop a bulb.
Both the green and white varieties are used mostly to flavour dishes with a lighter flavour than from bulb onions.
Use raw if sliced thin, and added at the very end of a short cooking.
6. Spring onion (Allium sp.) is a thin plant with small bulbs that grow quickly and produce daughter bulbs.
It has a strong taste and is used in stews or eaten raw.
Red onion cultivars | Cyanidin | Flavonoids | Amaryllidaceae
Perennial leek, Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum, Amaryllidaceae
Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum, Perennial leek, Daleys Fruit Tree Nursery

Rocambole, (Allium sativum var ophioscorodon), serpent garlic, sand leek, may be used as garlic | Alliin | Diallyl disulfide | Diallyl sulfide | Diallyl trisulfide | ornamental, Amaryllidaceae
Allium Sativum var ophioscorodon, Garlic ' Picone Purple', Daleys Fruit Tree Nursery

Shallot, (Allium cepa var. aggregatum), eschalot, Amaryllidaceae

Spring onion, ramps, wild garlic, ail des bois, Allium tricoccum

Tree onion, (Allium × proliferum), topsetting onion, walking onion, Egyptian onion, perennial, bulblets instead of flowers may sprout and dip down the stalk to cause plant to "walk", (hybrid: Allium cepa, Onion X Allium fistulosum, Welsh onion), Amaryllidaceae

5.2 Beetroot
Beetroot has a large red tap root, which is cooked in stews
Beetroot (Beta vulgaris sub vulgaris), Chenopodiaceae
Beetroot dried herb sold as fruit powder.
Betanin
9.9.0 Cells, human cheek cells, Elodea, plant cells (See 2.)
3.28 Different stems and roots, (Primary)
9.56.1 Effect of temperature and chemicals on beetroot plasma membrane
9.182 Effect of different temperatures on the cell membranes of beetroot
9.183 Effects of factors of environmental stress on the cell membranes of beetroot
9.2 Egg preservation (See 3. Pickled eggs)
Geosmin, C₁₂H₂₂O, (See 3.)
9.176 Plasmolysis in beetroot (Experiments)
5.6.13 Prepare beetroot (beet) juice acid-base indicator
1.9.1 Rotations for raised beds, (See 3.)
Streptomyces scabies, scab of beetroot, "potato scab"
19.4.2.21 Stain removal table, (See: Beetroot)
9.5.10 Tests for urine, urine tests, (See: 3. Colour of urine)
16.6.1 Tests for trimethylamine fish smell, "herring smell" of beetroot
Trimethylamine, fish smell

5.4 Legumes, peas and beans
Beans
5.4.0 Bean, common bean, French bean, (Phaseolus vulgaris), Fabaceae
5.4.1 Bean germination
5.4.2 Bean life cycle
5.4.3 Bean seed soaked
5.4.4 Grow bean seedlings
5.4.5 Harvest green beans
Broad bean, (Vicia faba), Fabaceae
Jack bean, (Canavalia ensiformis), Fabaceae
Jequirity bean, (Abrus precatorius), Fabaceae
Lablab bean, (Lablab purpureus), Fabaceae
5.4.15 Mung bean
Soya bean, (Glycine max), Fabaceae
5.4.22 Winged bean
9.43.0 Classification of a common bean
Pea
Pea, (Pisum sativum), Fabaceae
Pigeon pea, (Cajanus cajan), Fabaceae
Cowpea , (Vigna unguiculata), Fabaceae

Legumes
5.4.6 Cover crops
5.4.7 Different legumes
9.5.2.4 Dry dehiscent fruits, legume pod
6.6.17.1 Energy from peanuts
9.3.6 Enzyme activity, during germination, bean, maize
5.4.8 Green manure benefits
5.4.9 History of legumes
9.5.2.4 Legume, dry dehiscent fruit
5.4.10 Legume family, Fabaceae
9.72 Legume roots, broad bean, clover
5.4.11 Legume seeds and pods
5.4.12 Legumes as food
6.9.11 Legumes for the soil, make compost
5.4.13 Legumes in the diet
5.4.14 Leucaena leucocephala
5.4.16 Pasture legumes
5.4.17 Peanuts, groundnuts, Arachis hypogaea
7.8.3.6 Prepare bean curd (tofu, soya bean)
5.4.19 Pulses
5.4.20 Rhizobium in root nodules
5.4.21 Rhizobium inoculation
9.75 Root hairs, germinating bean plant
19.2.11 Soybean oil, soya fatty acid, soy acid, Composition of edible oils (Table)
9.155 Tests for respiration of soaked peas with limewater, respiration apparatus
5.4.22 Winged bean

5.4.0 Bean, common bean
Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), French bean, field bean, garden bean, green bean, (pole bean, climbing bean, bushy bean), haricot bean, kidney bean, runner bean, snap bean, string bean
See diagram 9.65.2: Mung Bean
Many kinds of beans come from Central America.
They are grown as a green vegetable and for the dried seeds.
The seeds must be soaked in warm water overnight, the water thrown away and then well cooked otherwise they cause gas in the intestines.
These beans often do not grow well in coastal areas of the tropics, the high humidity allows them to be attacked by many pests and diseases.
The seeds should be sown in deeply dug well-drained soil 3 cm deep, 60 cm apart between rows, and 10 cm apart within rows.
The soil must be loose and fine to allow the stem to lift the cotyledons easily through the soil.
Although they are legumes, they need much nitrogen in the soil.
Beans are erect annual plants that mature in 6-8 weeks and can usually be harvested in 2 pickings.
They cannot withstand very hot weather.
The seeds store well when dry, especially the red seed varieties.
There are many pests and diseases of beans.
Bean fly cause the stems of young plants to split and go brown, and small brown egg-shaped cocoons can be seen inside the attacked stem.
Bean pod borer is hard to treat, because it is a caterpillar that gets inside the pod.
Spider mites cause yellow spots on the leaves in dry weather.

5.4.1 Bean germination, (Experiment)
See diagram 9.113.2d: Bean seeds, different levels
See diagram 9.111: Epigeal germination
See diagram 9.112: Epigeal germination
See diagram 9.110.2: Hypogeal germination
See diagram 9.110.1: Hypogeal germination
See diagram 9.113.2d: Germinate bean seed
See diagram 9.112: Common bean, epigeal germination
See diagram 9.110.1: Broad bean, hypogeal germination
1. Use bean seeds, wet paper, jar.
The 2 types of germination:
Epigeal germination.
The seed leaves (cotyledons) pop out of the ground, e.g. common bean, (Phaseolus vulgaris)
Hypogeal germination.
The seed remains in the ground, e.g. peas (Pisum sativum), broad bean (Vicia faba), maize (Zea mays) (Indian corn).
1. Soak some bean seeds in water.
Observe the skin becoming wrinkled and the seed swells.
2. Put the soaked seeds in a jar with wet paper.
Observe the seeds each day and describe what happens by completing this table:
Day 1 Coat wrinkles, seed swells,
Day 2 Root comes out,
Day 3 Curved neck stage White finger stage,
Day 4 Seed pops out of ground,
Day 5 First leaves appear First leaves appear
This can be extended to become a crop diary.
3. Two weeks before this plant 5-10 bean seeds at different levels as in the diagram.
This can be done behind a piece of glass or in a glass aquarium, but keep the seeds in the dark.
Before the lesson, dig up germinated bean seeds at different stages of germination.
In the type of germination in the diagram, called epigeal germination, the cotyledons come out of the ground.
Epigeal germination occurs in the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).
In the type of germination in the diagram, called hypogeal germination, the cotyledons remain below the ground.
Hypogeal germination the broad bean, (Vicia faba), Hypogeal germination also occurs in the common pea (Pisum sativum). broad bean, the cotyledons remain belowthe soil enclosed in the testa and shrivel as their food stores are used upto drive the germination process. This is called hypogeal germination. In hypogeal germination the terminal bud is protected from soil abrasion Show the students the seeds at different stages of germination.
Seeds are alive, but they breathe very slowly.
When a seed is placed in the damp ground and water enters the hole the seed becomes very active, breathes more quickly and a new plant starts to grow.
This is called germination.
The baby plant uses the stored food in the seed until it can produce green leaves and make its own food.
Stages in germination of a bean seed: The seed swells and the radicle (baby plant root) grows out the hole in the seed coat.
The stem below the cotyledons grows into a loop.
This stem straightens and the cotyledons and the first leaves are pushed up out of the ground.
Conditions for good germination are as follows:
1. Water,
2. Air to let the baby plant breathe,
3. Healthy seed,
4. Correct depth of planting,
5. Correct variety kind of seed for tropical countries
The problem of poor germination is usually caused by sowing seeds too deeply, or over-watering or under-watering.
If the seed is planted too deeply, the tiny developing plant exhausts the food supply in the endosperm long before the shoot and leaves have broken through the soft surface and it dies.
The general rule is to plant a seed at a depth that equals twice its width.
Water newly-sown seeds with a mixture of one fifth of a teaspoon of Epsom salts in a litre of water to aid the germination process.
The magnesium in the salts will help stimulate the enzymes that make the food in the endosperm more readily available to the young seedling.
Small seeds should be only lightly covered with soil, but larger seeds will be planted at a greater depth.
The surface of the soil dries out more quickly than it does a few millimetres deeper.
So small seeds that are surface-sown should be kept moist while the larger seeds should be given a good soaking at planting time and then watered again only after they break through the ground.
If you water the larger seeds too much, they will rot in the moist soil.
The seed of many vegetables and flowering annuals are F1 hybrids, where the plant breeders have combined two different strains each with desirable characteristics.
However, F1 hybrids usually do not set seed or the seeds are not viable.
To select tomato seed for planting, squeeze the pulp and the seeds on absorbent paper, e.g. a paper towel, and spread it evenly over the paper.
Remove as much pulp as possible and lay the remainder in the sun for two weeks to dry the germination inhibiting enzymes.
Lay the paper towel with seeds uppermost on seed raising mix and lightly cover with fine seed mix.
Water lightly until the seedlings emerge.

5.4.2 Bean life cycle
See diagram 9.112: Epigeal germination 1.
See diagram 9.3.5: Epigeal germination 2.
See diagram 9.72.4: Winged bean flower seeds inside the bean pod. |
1. Green beans are grown for the young green juicy pods that are a good source of protective food if they are cooked quickly.
The beans are picked when the seeds inside the pods are still soft and young.
Green beans are also known as French bean, Kidney bean, Haricot bean, Snake bean and Runner bean.
Green beans are of two types:
1. Dwarf beans that grow as a small bush and mature early,
2. Climbing beans or pole beans that need support, mature late, but bear fruit for a longer time.
When green beans are eaten, they should be freshly picked.
You should hear a snap when you break them into two.
2. Observe bean seeds, e.g. dwarf "Contender" variety or climbing "Kentucky Wonder" variety.
Green beans are good protective food if they are eaten fresh or cooked quickly.

5.4.3 Bean seed soaked
See diagram 9.113: Soaked bean seed
See diagram 9.113.1: Bean seed, V.S.
See diagram 9.113.1d: Seeds, tiny hole, first leaves
See diagram 9.113.2d: Bean seeds, soaked, different levels, germinating
Two days before the lesson put some bean seeds in water.
Use enough seed for each student.
Also, have one dry bean seed ready for each student.
Leave the bean seeds in water in the classroom so the students can observe the seed coats swell and become wrinkled, then later become smooth when the insides of the seed swells.
Give each student a dry bean seed.
See: the hard shiny seed coat, the scar where the seed was originally attached to the fruit, the tiny hole (micropyle) at the end of the scar to let water and air in.
The baby root (radicle) grows out through this hole.
Give each student a bean seed soaked in water.
The soaked seed is larger and softer, because water has gone through the tiny hole.
When the water goes into the seed coats, they are first wrinkled and later smooth when the whole seed swells.
Cut open the seed coat with a finger nail or razor blade and see the baby plant inside.
The two main parts in halves are the cotyledons swollen with stored food.
Between the cotyledons is the baby shoot (plumule) and the baby root (radicle).
Seed coats (outside), scar, hole (micropyle)
Baby plant (embryo)
Baby plant shoot (plumule)
Baby plant root (radicle)
Seed leaves (2 cotyledons) (store of food)
Stages in germination of a bean seed:
1. The seed swells and the radicle (baby plant root) grows out the hole in the seed coat.
2. The stem below the cotyledons grows into a loop.
3. This stem straightens and the cotyledons and the first leaves are pushed up out of the ground.

5.4.4 Grow bean seedlings
See diagram 9.103.2: Watch seedlings grow 1
See diagram 9.103.3: Watch seedlings grow 2
1. Watch some young seedlings grow into mature plants.
Look for changes in colour, height and the number of leaves.
Measure the size of the leaves.
Count the flowers and the fruits.
Keep records of your observations.
2. Tie a string around the growing stem at an exact distance from the end of the shoot tip, e.g. 2 cm.
Record the distance between the end of the shoot tip and the tied string every day.
Observe that plants grow by extending their shoot tips.
3. Measure the height of the seedling with a ruler.
Cut a strip of paper the same height as the seedling and paste it on a big piece of cardboard.
Do this each day to make a bar graph.
Use the bar graph to predict how tall the plant will be 5 days later.
If you join the middles of the tops of the bars, you have a line graph.
When the slope of the line is steep, the plant is growing fast.
When the slope of the line is flatter, the plant is growing slowly.
4. Compare the growth of two seedlings, bean and maize.
Which seedling starts to grow first?
Which seedling is tallest after twelve days?
On which day are both seedlings the same height?
With this kind of graph you can answer questions, e.g. Do plants grow more during sunny or cloudy days?
Do plants grow more quickly when they are very young?
5. Compare the growth of four seedlings, tomato, chilli, pumpkin, papaya.
The four plants grow taller, produce flowers, fruits and seeds, but they do these things at different times.
Which plant germinates first?
Which plant flowers first?

5.4.5 Harvest green beans
1. Beans can be blown down by wind so you may need a windbreak.
You can cover the ridges with mulch to prevent soil being washed away.
However, if the mulch presses against the stems, they may be infected with stem rot, then the plant will fall over and die.
2. To prevent disease try to keep the tops of the bean plants dry, put water only on the soil during the late afternoon.
Young beans can be attacked by bean fly that lay eggs in the stems.
If stems are dying pull out the plant and burn it.
The bean pod borer is a green caterpillar that gets into the pod to eat the seeds.
Do not try to treat this with insecticide, just burn the infected pods.
3. Harvest the pods when the seeds are just soft little bumps inside the pod.
Pick the pods every seven days and eat these soon after picking.
Pods can be picked eight to ten weeks after planting.
Bean plants can be picked for two months.
When the harvest is finished pull out all the bean plants, including roots, and burn them.
This will help to control pests and disease.
4. Inspect the bean plants.
Are they damaged by wind?
Are the ridges washed away?
Are the ridges or raised beds protected by mulch?
Are there any pests or disease?
Are the beans ready for harvest?
Pick the beans without damaging them or the plant.
Eat the green beans raw or lightly cooked.

5.4.6 Cover crops
1. Legumes may be grown between tree crops to cover the soil and stop weeds growing by shading them.
These crops are called cover crops, e.g. the trailing plants Pueraria and Centrosema.
Erect plants, e.g. Crotalaria and cowpea, are grown as green manures.
If these plants are dug into the soil at the time of flowering nitrogen plant nutrient is added to the soil.
Some legumes that are trees or shrubs are grown to provide shade or windbreaks, e.g. Leucaena.
Legumes that are large trees and have large flowers are grown for shade and decoration, e.g. coral tree Erythrina.
2. We use some legumes as cover crops, e.g. Puero, Centro and Calopogonium.
Cover crops: * lower soil temperature and evaporation of water, (feel the soil under a cover crop),
* protect soil from erosion, but let water trickle down into the soil,
* shade the weeds so they cannot grow,
* add humus and nitrogen fertilizer to the soil when the leaves die.
Cover crops an cause problems, e.g. shading young coconuts, so clear a circle around each palm.
3. If not using land for some time, such as during the school holidays, you can protect the soil and keep weeds out by planting cover crops.
However, clearing cover crops is hard work.
If you plant an upright legume such as cowpea or mung bean, you can easily dig them into the soil as green manure.
About 3-6 weeks after digging the plants into the soil, the plant foods will be available for their next crop.
4. Sowing a cover crop of green manure.
Centro has hard seeds that take a long time to germinate, unless you treat them with boiling water.
Puero and Calopogonium grow well in shade under leaves.
Do not dig in green manure crops under tree crops, because it damages the roots of the tree crops.
Other good cover crops are Hetero and Siratro that produce good grains for cattle and Stylo that is good at smothering weeds.

5.4.7 Different Legumes
See diagram 9.72.1: Winged bean, pigeon pea, mung bean
1. Winged bean, four-angled bean, Goa bean, "as bin" (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus).
This bean should be grown in all school gardens, because the seeds have a high protein content.
You can eat the seeds, green pods, leaves, flowers and tubers.
2. Cowpea, snake bean, yard-long bean (Vigna): These plants are closely related.
They are grown for the seeds and pods and as a green manure crop.
3. Peanut or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea): They have a high protein content and the plant is a good animal feed.
The peanuts must be roasted or boiled before eating.
Some students are allergic to peanuts so be careful!
4. Mung bean or green gram bean (Phaseolus aureus):
The pods have a high protein content and the seeds can be left to sprout rather than eaten.
The pods are small and people get tired of picking them.
It is also a good green manure crop.
5. Soya bean or soy bean (Glycine max): The seeds are very nutritious, but this plant is attacked by lots of diseases in the wet tropics.
6. Chick pea (Cicer arietum): It has a perennial bush that can be used as temporary shade.
7. Pigeon pea is a perennial bush that can be used as temporary shade.
8. Other shade trees: "cocoa shade" (Gliricidia albizia) coral tree (Erythrina), Leucaena, wattle tree (Acacia)
Cassia and Poinciana, flame of the forest (Delonix regia).
9. Other useful legumes: Lablab bean, yam bean (Pachyrrhizus) and Derris used to make an insecticide and fish poison.

5.4.8 Green manure benefits
Green manures provide the following benefits to the soil:
* increases organic matter, earthworms and beneficial micro-organisms.
* increases available nitrogen and water retention.
* stabilizes the soil to prevent erosion.
* brings deep minerals to the surface and break up soil compaction.
* provides habitats for beneficial insects.
* improves water, root and air penetration.
* smothers weeds.
* fills unused garden beds with useful soil-building plants.
Examples of green manure plants:
1. Warm season, whenever good rainfall is expected:
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), millet (Pennisetum sp.), Japanese millet (Echinochloa utilis), mung bean (Vigna radiata), soybean (Glycine max).
2. Cool season:
Broad bean (Vicia faba), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), lupins (Lupinus), oats, (Avena sativa), subterranean sub clover (Trifolium subterraneum), woolly pod vetch (Vicia villosa).

5.4.11 Legume seeds and pods
See diagram 9.113.1: Bean pod
1. Examine the outside and inside of a bean seed and 2. recognize the parts of a bean seed and say what they are used for.
Use soft pea or bean pods and bean seeds.
The seeds must be soaked in water a day before you teach the lesson.
Each seed is covered with a seed coat and you can see the scar where the seed was attached in the seed pod.
Inside the seed coat are two cotyledons or halves that contain stored food.
This food is used by the young plant when it first begins to grow, i.e. germinate.
The young plant lies between the two seed leaves and can be clearly seen with a hand lens.
It consists of a young root and a young shoot, leaves and stem.
1. Use a hand lens, four bean seeds and four sheets of paper.
Open some pods show the seeds inside to them.
Examine one bean seed, feel it, and note that the seed has a "skin" or coat around, the "seed coat", which protects the seed.
Use the finger nails to cut through the seed coat and remove it.
Look carefully at the inside part of the seed.
How many parts can you see?
Cut carefully around the edge of the seed and open the seed into two parts.
Look for the small plant inside, take turns using the magnifying glass to look at the small young plant.
2. Look at the two big white parts (cotyledons) and explain to them that these contain food for the young plant when it begins to grow.

5.4.9 History of legumes
Legumes are a very old food.
The story in the Bible of Esau and Jacob and the "mess of pottage" refers to a porridge made of dried legumes called red lentils.
In some parts of the Bible it says that legumes are a food for poor people only.
However, when Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, ordered that some of the students of the Israelites be given some of the King's meat every day, Daniel changed this to more simple food.
After the students had eaten pulses and water for 10 days, they appeared healthier than those who ate the King's meat.

5.4.10Legume family, Fabaceae
See diagram 9.72: Root nodules
See diagram 9.72.2: Winged bean flower
See diagram 9.53.9: Acacia, Leucaena leaves
Legume family, Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae)
1. Legumes are plants of the bean family, Fabaceae.
Their roots have lumps, nodules, containing Rhizobium bacteria that can use nitrogen gas from the air.
When the legume plant dies and rots in the soil, this nitrogen from the air is available to other plants, so legumes improve the fertility of the soil.
When a legume crop is buried in the soil it is called a green manure.
Legumes can grow in different soils, which should be deeply dug and well-drained to allow roots to grow easily and prevent attacks by fungus and nematode worms.
Legumes are usually planted near the end of the rainy season, 3 cm deep in rows, 50 cm apart between rows, 30 cm apart within rows, or planted closer and thinned out to 30 cm.
2. Legume plants usually have an erect, spreading, trailing or climbing growth habit.
The plants produce flowers and fruit over some weeks that require more than one picking.
The trailing plants usually have the longest harvesting period, but climbing plants save space in the vegetable garden.
3. Legumes are easily recognized from the leaves and the flowers.
The leaves are usually compound leaves, often with each leaf divided into 3, 5, or more leaflets.
The flower has 5 sepals and 5 unusual petals, 1 large standard petal coming from the back, 2 wing petals at the side and 2 keel petals below, which may be joined.
The flower has 10, or 9 + 1, stamens, which are stuck together to form a tube.
The fruit is a pod formed from one carpel, which can break into two to let the row of seeds out.
The flowers are normally self-pollinated, but they can be cross pollinated by large insects, e.g. bees, which can push down the keel petals and get into the flower.

5.4.12 Legumes as food
1. Food
The parts of the legume plants eaten by humans include:
1. Tender young leaves, e.g. pigeon pea.
2. Seeds from the unripe pods picked when still green or light yellow, e.g. cowpea.
The pods of snowpea, sugar pea, mangetout, are eaten whole with the seeds still inside.
3. Dried legume seeds called pulses, e.g. alfalfa, chickpea, clover, lentil, pea, mung bean, pigeon pea, soybean.
4. Sprouted seeds, e.g. mung bean, soybean (bean sprouts).
Legumes are used for food in two main ways:
1. The unripe green pods and sometimes also the tender green leaves are picked and cooked as a vegetable.
These provide vitamins and minerals if eaten soon after picking, e.g. green bean, winged bean.
2. The pods are picked when almost dry before they split and let the seeds out.
They are then dried in the sun and threshed by putting them in a bag and hitting it with a stick.
The dried seed called a pulse is stored and later boiled and eaten, e.g. mung bean, pigeon pea.

5.4.13 Legumes in the diet
Legumes are used for food in two main ways:
1. The unripe green pods and sometimes also the tender green leaves are picked and cooked as a vegetable.
These provide vitamins and minerals if eaten soon after picking, e.g. green bean, winged bean.
2. The pods are picked when almost dry before they split and let the seeds out.
They are then dried in the sun and threshed by putting them in a bag and hitting it with a stick.
The dried seed called a pulse is stored and later boiled and eaten, e.g. mung bean, pigeon pea.
3. The edible seeds of leguminous plants cultivated for food are called pulses, e.g. peas, beans, lentils.
Pulses are easily digested and nutritious food.
They contain about 20% protein, 60% carbohydrates, 3% fat and minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, and vitamins.
The type of protein is not sufficient for a balanced diet, so some animal protein is still required in the diet.
Before cooking, pulses should be soaked in warm water overnight and the water thrown away.
This reduces production of gas during digestion.
They are cooked by boiling for up to an hour.

5.4.14 Leucaena species
Leucaena leucocephala (Acacia leucocephala, Leucaena glauca, Mimosa glauca, Mimosa leucocephala), Family Fabaceae (Leguminosae), Subfamily: Mimosoideae, Common names: lamtoro, ipil ipil, tangan tangan, vaivai
| See diagram 4.26: Leucaena
| See diagram 9.53.9: Leucaena leaves |
Leucaena is a perennial shrub, up to 18 m tall, forked when shrubby and branching strongly after coppicing, grey bark, prominent lenticels.
Leaves are bipinnate with 4-9 pairs of pinnae, variable in length up to 35 cm, with a large gland (up to 5 mm) at the base of the petiole, leaflets with 11-22 pairs of pinnae, 8-16 mm x 1-2 mm.
Flowers numerous, in globose heads with a diameter of 2-5 cm, stamens (10 per flower) and pistil 10 mm long, anthers pilose, dehiscing at dawn.
Pods are 14-26 cm x 1.5-2 cm, pendant, brown at maturity.
Seeds are 18-22 per pod, 6-10 mm long, brown.
Uses of Leucaena:
* unripe pods and seeds as a food or medicine.
* very young shoots as food.
* ruminant forage, combines well with signal grass.
* fuel wood.
* in hedgerow systems with grass for cattle production.
* shade trees over coffee and cocoa.
* living fence to support vine crops, e.g. pepper, passionfruit.
* reclamation species following mining, but weed risk.
* forage under mature coconuts.
Leucaena grows on shallow limestone soils, coastal sands and seasonally dry, self-mulching vertisol soils of pH 7.0-8.5.
It is tolerant of moderate salinity and alkalinity, but intolerant of low pH, high salinity and waterlogging.
It prefers subhumid and humid climates of 650-1, 500 mm and up to 3, 000 mm annual rainfall and tolerates up to 7 months dry season.
It requires temperatures of 25-30C for optimum growth.
All subspecies will flower and set seed throughout the year, providing soil moisture and temperature are adequate.
It does not normally spread under grazing as cattle eat young seedlings.
However, it has considerable weed potential in ungrazed situations due to hard seeds and high rates of seed production.
Also, it colonizes disturbed lands such as roadsides and stream banks, particularly in limestone-based soils.
Weed potential is particularly severe for Leucaena leucocephala subsp. leucocephala, as this subspecies seeds continuously
and heavily throughout the year given sufficient soil moisture.

5.4.15 Mung bean
See diagram 9.72.1 Mung bean, winged bean, pigeon pea.
Mung bean, green gram, (Vigna radiata), Fabaceae
The crop matures in about 3 months and is harvested over some weeks as the pods ripen.
The pods tend to split so it is best to harvest pale yellow pods in the mornings and let them dry in the sun.
They are easy to thresh by hand to put them in a bag and beat it.
The stored bean may be damaged by insects if not kept dry.
Mung bean can be boiled and eaten as a vegetable, or boiled and mashed with sugar or syrup, or boiled and eaten cold with onion, oil and vinegar.
Mung bean can be sprouted by soaking seeds and then letting them sprout for 3 to 4 days.
Before cooking mung bean, the seeds should be soaked in warm water overnight and that water thrown away.

5.4.16 Pasture legumes
Pasture legumes are food for animals.
Axillaris, Archer, Macrotyloma axillare, combines well with many grasses and legumes
Calopo, Calopogonium mucunoides, pioneer legume, vigorous growth for weed control.
Centrosema, Common, Belato Centrosema pubescens, "Centro", suited to tropical lowland environments, slow growth, hard seeds, take long to germinate.
Crotalaria, rattlebox, sunn hemp, Crotalaria, juncea, suited to tropical lowland environments, slow growth, hard seeds, take long to germinate
Cowpea, hairypod cowpea, Vigna luteola
Desmodium. Desmodium uncinatum
Greenleaf desmodium, combines well with grasses in coastal areas of tropics.
Silverleaf desmodium, more persistent than Greenleaf desmodium under hardier conditions
Hetero, Johnstone, Desmodium heterophyllum, for wet tropical coast, combines well with Pangola and Signal grass
Lablab, Rongai, Highworth, Lablab purpurens, cover crop, green manure, good for hay or silage
Leucaena leucocephala, perennial shrub, combines well with signal grasses.
Lotononis, Miles, Lotononis bainesii, well adapted to acid soils, good palatability
Phasey bean, Murray, Macroptilium lathyroides, self-regenerating, annual, well adapted to waterlogging
Puero, Pueraria phaseoloides, pioneer , palatable and productive, grows well in shade under trees, large rounded leaves, adapted to coastal areas, aggressive, early spring growth.
Siratro, bushbean, Macroptilium atropurpureum, easy to establish, prolific grower, persistent, makes thick mats.
Stylo (Schofield), Stylosanthes guyanensis, are adapted to humid tropics, even poor soils.
Stylo (Townsville Stylo, Common, Patterson), Stylosanthes humilis, easy establishment, is good reseeder.
Stylo (Pencil flower, cheesytoes. Carribean, Veran), Stylosanthes hamata, is perennial under grazing.
Stylo (Shrubby Stylo, Seca), Stylosonthes scabra, adapted to seasonally dry tropics.

5.4.17 Peanuts (groundnuts)
Ppeanut (Arachis hypogaea)
Be careful! Some young children are allergic to peanuts!
Peanuts are used as food, because they help us to grow.
Peanuts should be boiled or roasted and not eaten raw.
Peanuts grow best in light loose soils, sandy loam.
These soils let the nuts grow big in the ground and also the nuts are easy to dig out.
They are often grown in rotation with maize.
Peanuts need plenty of rain from the time they are planted until they are fully grown.
When the pods are getting ripe, the weather should be dry.
Peanuts should be planted 3-5 months before the end of the wet season.
The peanut flower forms a young pod that pushes down into the soft soil.
Peanut roots have little white bumps on them called nodules that help the plant to grow bigger.
The nodules are found in most legume plants.
The nodules improve the soil for crops following legume crops.
Planting Peanuts
Use the following items: spades, clean seeds free from disease, land (1.5 x 3 m).
Soil preparation
Peanuts must be planted in well-dug ground.
The land must be properly cleared of all trees, logs and grass.
Peanuts are best grown in rows.
If the land is not well cleared, they cannot plant peanuts in rows.
There is no need to dig the soil if their ground is loose and friable.
However, dig out every bit of root and runner of kunai grass, blady grass, Imperata cylindrica.
Planting.
Use only the best seed for planting to get a good crop.
If there is none available ask the agricultural officer for the right kind of seed.
Be sure the seed has no weevils or small grubs in it, and that it is not mouldy.
Mark out rows across the peanut block with bush rope one metre apart.
Then plant the seed along these rows 30 cm apart or dig up a raised bed 15 cm high, 1.5 metres wide and three metres long.
Take the seed out of its shell before you plant.
Then press each seed into the ground to a depth of 2 cm.
If planted any deeper, the seed may rot in the ground.
If planted any shallower, the seed may dry out if they get no rain quickly, or the birds may eat it.
Cover up the seed and firm the soil.
Some commercial seed is coated with a blue chemical, so do not let students eat these seeds.
If the garden is on a slope, make the rows run around the hill instead of straight up and down, or they will lose a lot of topsoil by erosion during heavy rain.
It is best to plant towards the end of the wet season.
Peanuts take about four months to mature.
Therefore the weather should be dry when the time comes to harvest the crop.
1. Dig the ground and mark out rows or make holes two cm deep.
Take the seed out of the shell and put one clean seed in each hole.
Press the earth flat over the seeds.
2. Draw a map of the planting.
3. Inspect the planting every day.
Pick out any weeds.
Note when do the first seedlings come up.
Care and harvest of peanuts
1. Care of peanut crop
Ask an agricultural officer to look at their peanut crop and ask about plant pests and diseases.
While the peanut plants are growing, weed often.
As the plants get bigger, hill up the rows to improve drainage, loosens the soil, and make harvesting easier.
2. Harvest
The peanut crop should be mature 90 to 110 days after planting.
Peanuts are ready to harvest when some of the leaves and stalks turn yellow, also at this time some of the leaves start falling off.
Pull up only one plant and check the pods before harvesting the entire crop to be certain about the peanut harvest time.
When harvesting, do not pull the plants up, because many nuts will be stripped off and left in the ground.
Dig them out carefully with a pointed stick or a garden fork.
3. Storage
After digging out the bushes hang them upside down in the open sun for at least three weeks.
When the leaves are dry and the nuts inside the shell are firm, curing has finished.
Brush off any remaining soil and remove the pods from the roots. Lay them out in a single layer on a flat surface and allow them to dry for another two weeks.
The nuts will be ripe and have a good taste.
Keep the best nuts for replanting.
Store raw peanuts in a well-ventilated area in mesh bags.
Roast peanuts in a single layer on an aluminium sheet in an oven at 18o^C for 15 to 20 minutes.
Store roasted peanuts in air-tight containers.

5.4.18 Plant green beans
1. Green beans will produce a good yield in about 10 weeks.
The best seeds are hybrid imported seeds from companies such as Yates, or Takii.
Good varieties are Suva Green, Epicure, Blue Lake, Contender.
Soil should be well-drained open soil, because beans will not stand waterlogging.
Rotten compost or animal manure should be dug in.
Dwarf beans should be planted in ridges or raised beds.
The plants should be sheltered from the wind.
Plant seeds 20 cm apart in rows 50 cm apart.
Climbing beans save space, but you have to provide a support fence or strings, two metres high.
Seeds are planted 15 cm apart on rows 100 cm apart.
Do not soak seeds before planting.
Plant when soil is damp, but not at the wettest time of year.
Do not water until two days after planting.
2. Plant green bean seeds in ridges or beds.
Bury compost or manure in a shallow trench then pile soil on top to a ridge.
3. Note when the first shoots come up out of the ground?

5.4.19 Pulses
A pulse is the edible seed of beans and peas.
Pulses are annual leguminous crops yielding grains or seeds of variable size, shape and colour within a pod, and are used for both food and feed.
The term "pulses" is limited to crops harvested solely for dry grain, excluding crops harvested green for food, e.g. green peas, which are classified as vegetable crops.
The term "pulses" also excludes crops used for oil extraction, e.g. soybean, groundnuts, and leguminous crops such as seeds of clover and alfalfa, used for sowing purposes.
Pulses also play an important role in cropping systems, because of their ability to fix nitrogen and so enrich the soil.
Pulses contain carbohydrates, mainly starches (55-65 % of the total weight), proteins, including essential amino acids (18-25 %), and fat (1 - 4 %), with the remainder consists of water and inedible substances.
Production data is reported in terms of dry clean weight, excluding the weight of the pods.
FAO describes 11 primary pulses:
1. Beans, Dry, includes: | kidney bean, haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) | lima bean, butter bean (Phaseolus lunatus) | adzuki bean (Phaseolus angularis) | golden gram, green gram (Phaseolus aureus) | black gram (Phaseolus mungo) | scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) | rice bean (Phaseolus calcaratus) | moth bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius) | tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius) |.
2. Broad Beans, Dry, includes: | Vicia faba: horse-bean (var. equina) | broad bean (var. major) | held bean (var. minor) |.
3. Peas, Dry, includes: | garden pea (Pisum sativum) | field pea (Pisum arvense) |.
4. Chickpeas, includes: | chickpea, Bengal gram, garbanzos (Cicer arietinum) |.
5. Cow Peas, Dry, includes: | cowpea, blackeye pea / bean (Vigna sinensis, Dolichos sinensis)|.
6. Pigeon Peas, includes: | pigeon pea, cajan pea, Congo bean (Cajanus cajan)|.
7. Lentils, includes: | (Lens esculenta, Ervum lens) |.
8. Bambara Beans, includes: | bambara groundnut, earth pea (Voandzeia subterranea)|.
9. Vetches, includes: | spring/common vetch (Vicia sativa) | used mainly for animal feed.
10. Lupins, includes: | Lupinus spp. | used primarily for feed, but some varieties are cultivated for human food.
11. Pulses includes: | lablab or hyacinth bean (Dolichos spp.) | jack or sword bean (Canavalia spp.) | winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) | guar bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) | velvet bean (Stizolobium spp.) | yam bean (Pachyrrhizus erosus) |.
Two processed products are included in the FAO list: 1. Flour of Pulses, produced through milling or grinding of pulses, and 2. Bran of Pulses.

5.4.20 Rhizobium in root nodules
Root nodules (Commercial)
Soil Slide Root Nodules with Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria, (Commercial)
Apigeninglucoside
4.3.13 Isolate micro-organisms from root nodules, (Experiment)
Legheamoglobin
6.40 Legumes for the soil, make compost, (Experiment)
1.8.1 Molybdenum
4.70 Rhizobium bacteria, (Experiment)
5.4.21 Rhizobium inoculation
9.72 Rhizobium, Legume roots, broad bean, clover, (Experiment)
4.3.12 Root nodules, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, (Experiment)
6.2.2 Soil nitrogen bacteria, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, (Experiment)

5.4.21 Rhizobium inoculation
See diagram 9.209: T.S. Root nodule
See diagram 9.72: Root nodules
Nitrogen fertilizer is not normally needed, because the plants can fix nitrogen from the air with their root nodules.
However, if legumes are being grown in a soil for the first time, there may not be enough nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Rhizobium.
To provide enough bacteria, the seed should be mixed with the correct type of bacteria just before planting.
This is called inoculation.
To inoculate, e.g. cowpea seed, mix the contents of the packet of cowpea inoculant with water and pour it over the seed so become evenly coated.
For slurry inoculation, make a slurry by mixing packet contents with 500 mL water for small packets and 2 000 mL water for larger packets.
Use a Legume Seed Inoculation Chart from agricultural chemical companies, to calculate how much inoculant is used for the type and amount of seed.

5.4.22 Winged bean
See diagram 9.72.1: Mung bean, winged bean, pigeon pea
See diagram 9.72.4: Winged bean flower|
Winged bean, (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), Fabaceae, four-angled bean, Goa bean, "asbin" (PNG), can contain 33% protein and the tubers 10% protein.
The plant grows in almost any type of well-drained soil.
It is a long vine that must be supported on stakes.
The large pods have "wings" on them.
Some varieties produce mostly pods and some produce mostly tubers.
Seeds are planted 3 cm deep, 20 cm x 20 cm apart in raised beds or mounds, at the start of the wet season.
They can be interplanted with maize or soybean.
Fertilizer and inoculation is not usually needed.
Weeding should be done early to protect the young plants from competition for water.
When the crop is 6-8 weeks old, stakes or string 2 metres high should be provided to let the plant climb.
Collar rot can only be controlled by shallow planting in well-drained soils.
Flowers, leaves and green pods can be harvested after 3 months and tubers after 5 months.
Winged bean germinates best between 18 - 25^oC so should be sown in early summer.
The seed should be scarified, because it can have a hard skin that can inhibit germination by preventing moisture entering the seed.
Winged bean as food
Pods
1. The winged bean is a tropical vine producing large highly nutritious winged pods.
All parts of this uniquely flavoured plant are eaten from the pods to the flowers, leaves, stems and roots.
Pods are best picked when young and added to stir-fry dishes.
The flowers may also be added to dishes and sometimes used to add colour to rice or pastries.
Young leaves are picked and prepared as for many leafy vegetables like spinach.
The roots can be used in a similar fashion to potatoes and much more nutritious.
Dried seeds are also ground to make a form of flour.
2. Winged bean pods are the most popular part of the plant in almost every country where it is grown.
Tender pods may be eaten raw or else chopped and then either boiled in water or coconut milk, or shallow-fried in oil.
The winged bean is also used in soups, and stews.
Pods that are too fibrous to eat whole are often steamed or baked in open fires, and the seeds scraped out and eaten.
The seeds may first be removed and then boiled or fried.
Leaves, shoots and flowers
The growing shoots, young leaves and flowers of the winged bean are edible, nutritious and delicious.
They may be boiled or fried.
Ripe seeds
Winged bean seeds should be soaked until the seed coat starts to soften.
They can then be boiled in water until they are tender, or they may be shallow fried or baked.
It is best to soak the seeds in water beforehand to breakdown some of the toxic substances.
The winged bean seed contains about as much protein and energy as the soybean.
Root tubers
Tubers can be boiled or baked (but not fried) without peeling.
The skin then peels off easily.
The root should not be eaten raw.
Winged bean in the diet
Winged bean should be grown in the school garden, because its seeds are good growth foods and the green parts are good healthy food.
You can eat the seeds, green pods, leaves, flowers and underground root tubers.
Care and harvest of winged bean
Make sure the winged beans have enough water and are well-drained.
If the leaves start to turn yellow, add some fertilizer, e.g. superphosphate.
After a month when plants are five cm high they need stakes to climb up.
Use strong sticks such as bamboo, two metres high for every 3rd plant.
When stakes are in position, pull out all weeds.
If you want bigger root tubers break off all the flowers and young shoots.
Diseases can form orange coloured lumps on the leaves, stems and pods.
Pick those infested plants and burn them.
Harvesting flowers, leaves and green pods can start after three months.
Tubers are harvested after six months.
Let some good pods mature to form seed for the next planting.
Beans and tubers are cooked by boiling.
Use stakes and something to hammer them in.
Visit the winged bean garden each week and note any changes.

5.5 Maize
Maize, (Zea mays), "corn", Indian corn, sweet corn, mealy, vegetable, corn oil, corn silk herb | Alloimperatorin C16H14O4 | Prangenidin, C16H14O4 | Psoralen | Carotenes | Cryptoxanthin | Cytochromes | DIMBOA | Harzianopyridone | Monocerin | Oryzacytatin | PM-Toxin A | Rubisco | Sitosterol | Starch | Strigol | Subaphyllin | Tryptamine | Zeaxanthin | herbal medicine, Central America, Poaceae
Flint corn, (Zea mays subsp. mays), [used for popcorn], Poaceae
Dried herb sold as purple corn seed powder.
9.17.1.2 Adding fertilizers by broadcasting, banding, top-dressing, side-dressing (See 4.)
16.9.50 Biofuels
19.3.3 Boiling, test the cooking water of boiled vegetables (See 4.)
9.2.2 Companion planting
9.185 Conduction of water and salts through the stems (See 1.)
9.183 Conduction of water in plants, cut flowers in coloured water (See 2.)
5.5.1 Corn silk
Corn earworm, (Heliothis armigera), moth larva is a pest of maize.
5.5.2 Corn smut (fungus)
5.5.1.0 Corn products, Maize products
1.9 Crop rotation
1.27 Drinking-glass (Primary)
9.3.6 Enzyme activity during germination, bean, maize
Faidherbia, (Faidherbia albida), maize interplanting, Fabaceae
1.10 Food crop families
9.5.1.2 Fruit, Caryopsis (grain), dry indehiscent fruit
5.29.1 Germinate maize grain (Primary)
5.5.3 Head smut (fungus)
9.2.3 Interplanting
9.80 Monocotyledon stem, maize, Zea mays
9.1.3 Monocotyledons, grass (cereals), bamboo, sugar cane, maize
9.5.3: Plants need mineral salts, maize (See 2.)
9.1.2b Smuts, maize smut (corn smut)
9.9.18.2 Soil-less culture solutions, maize
1.48 Watch seeds germinate, maize, (Primary)

5.5.1 Corn silk
Each maize ovary, in a female inflorescence, called a husk, produces an elongated style with a hairy stigma, called a "silk".
Pollen from the tassels of different male flowers falls on the silks of immature maize, to fertilize the ovary to later form a kernel.
The silks are called corn silk or maize silk.
The long shiny fibres are consumed as a diuretic folk medicine herb tea for urinary disorders, bed wetting, diabetes, high blood pressure.
Dried herb sold as corn silk, Mudbrick Herb Cottage.

5.5.2 Corn smut (fungus)
Corn smut is a fungus, (Ustilago maydis), Ustilaginaceae, that causes smut disease in corn, maize plants.
The disease is recognized by the appearance of white swellings on the stem, leaves and ears of the maize.
The swellings contain black spores that are carried by the wind to other plants when the white swellings break open.
This fungus is edible and is part of the diet in some countries.

5.5.3 Head smut (fungus)
Head smut fungus is a fungus, (Sporisorium reilianum), Ustilaginaceae, a soil-borne disease of maize and sorghum, (maize head smut and sorghum head smut).
The heads of the affected plants are very small, have black powdery particles and are completely destroyed.
It occurs in USA and China, where it is becoming an increasing problem, because of climate change.

5.6 Mango
Mangoes in subtropical winter
Apply a little fertilizer in June and, if dry, water to encourage bud activity to help flower formation.
Apply 1-2 kg gypsum to mature trees to supply calcium.
During flowering, if the night temperature drops below 10^oC, it kills the ovaries in the flower so they never get seed set and the fruit falls off when small.
These damaged flowers are called "nubbins".
Cut them open to see if no seed is present.
At the end of July, snap off the flowers on the half of the tree that you can reach easily.
If a warm winter, the primary flowering will set fruit and if a cold winter, the secondary flowering will set fruit.
The fruit is prone to anthracnose fungus and bacterial spot diseases.
To prevent disease, spray a copper-based fungicide.
Use "Ecocarb" (potassium bicarbonate), as an organic disease spray on mangoes.
Prune the trees to allow air and sunshine into the tree after fruiting and give supplementary potash during late winter.
For good canopy management and tree nutrition and soil management you should be able to see the sky through the pruned tree canopy.

5.8 Wheat
Triticum aestivum, Poaceae, (Classification)
Wheat and flour, (Triticum aestivum)
Wheat gluten and laundry starch: 16.6.2
The word "corn", in England refers to wheat, in Scotland, refers to oats, in the US, and in most of the world, refers to Indian corn, Zea Mays, e.g. cornflakes.
Wheat, (Triticum aestivum), "bread wheat", vitamin E in wheat germ, edible grain, wheatgrass, hexaploid, dried herb sold as aerials powder, Australia, Poaceae
Durum wheat, (Triticum turgidum, var. durum), edible grain, tetraploid, Poaceae
Wheatgrass
Wheatgrass is the first leaves of the wheat plant (Triticum aestivum), and is consumed as a food, drink, or dietary supplement for its unsubstantiated health benefits.
Commercial wheatgrass extract juice may be preferred to fresh wheatgrass juice, which can be difficult to ingest, because of its odour and taste.
Wheat germ oil, yellow, contains vitamin E and octacosanol, C28H58O, and is said to have health benefits
Wheat leaf rust (Puccinia triticina) spends part of its life cycle on wheat, Triticum aestivum, and part on barberry plants Berberis spp.

5.3 Cryopreservation of avocado shoot tips, by Chris O’Brien
Cryopreservation combined with in vitro culture offers a safe and cost-effective method to conserve germplasm.
Conservation of Persea spp. has been limited to heterozygous somatic embryos that are not true-to-type.
A method for shoot-tip cryopreservation is vital to preserve the exact gene pool of interest.
For the first time cryopreservation protocols for mature shoot tips of two avocado cultivars (cvs) ‘Velvick’ and ‘Reed’, were established.
In vitro shoots were subjected to two different optimised pre-treatments: (1) cv ‘Velvick’—high sucrose (0.3 M) or (2) cv ‘Reed’—low temperature (10 °C) incubation, over a 2-week period prior shoot tip dissection.
Two different plant vitrification solutions, plant vitrification solution 2 (PVS2) and vitrification solution L (VSL) were tested at 0 °C for 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 min.
Vitrified shoots were evaluated for survival and regrowth after 8 weeks vitrification treatment and either with or without liquid nitrogen exposure.
The study revealed that the optimal exposure time for each cultivar varied with the cryoprotectant used.
After liquid nitrogen cv ‘Velvick’ highest regrowth levels were observed with 20 min exposure to either PVS2 or VSL, however, vigorous plants were produced only from VSL treated shoots.
In the case of cv ‘Reed’ highest regrowth levels were observed with 10 min exposure to PVS2, however, only morphologically normal plants were recovered from VSL treated shoots.