School Science Lessons
(UNBiol8)
2024-12-19
Bacteria
Please send comments to: j.elfick@uq.edu.au
Contents
8.1.0 Bacteria, Species
8.2.0 Bacteria, Diseases
8.2.1 Bacteria diseases of plants
8.3.0 Bacteria, Gram stain
8.4.0 Bacteria, Phylum
8.5.0 Bacteria, Physiology
8.6.0 Bacteria, Shape
8.7.0 Bacteria, Experiments
Bacteria
8.5.1 Acetic acid bacteria
8.5.3 Anoxygenic phototropic bacteria.
8.5.4 Bioluminescent bacteria.
8.5.7 Denitrifying bacteria.
Cocoa
8.5.5 Colourless sulfur-oxidizing bacteria
8.5.6 Cyanobacteria
8.1.5 Green non-sulfur bacteria
8.5.11 Hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria
8.5.13 Methanotrophs, (methane to methanol)
8.5.12 Methane-producing bacteria
8.5.14 Mycoplasmas.
8.5.15 Myxobacteria
8.5.16 Nitrifying bacteria, nitrification.
8.5.17 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
8.5.18 Oxygenic phototropic bacteria
8.5.8 Pasteur's spontaneous generation experiment
8.5.19 Purple nonsulfur bacteria
8.5.20 Purple sulfur bacteria, external sulfur granules
8.18 Rickettsias and chlamydias
8.5.22 SCOBY, Symbiotic Colony Of Bacteria and Yeast
Streptomycin
8.5.25 Sulfonamides, sulfa drugs
8.20 Sulfur-reducing bacteria
8.5.28 Yoghurt and lactic acid bacteria "Yakult"
8.70 Rhizobium bacteria
8.5.27 VRE bacteria (Vancomycin Resistant Bacteria)
Wolbachia bacteria, sterilized mosquito trial
8.1.0 Bacteria
Acetobacter
Actinomycetes
Agrobacterium
Amikacin aminoglycoside
Azotobacter
Bacillus species
Bacteroides
Bartonella
Bifidobacteria
Borrelia
Campylobacter
Chlamydia
Clostridium
Corynebacterium
Enterobacter
Escherichia
Enterococcus
Fusobacterium
Gardnerella
Gentamicin
Haemophilus
Helicobacter
Klebsiella
Lactobacillus
Legionella
Leptospira
Listeria
Micrococcus
Micromonospora
Mycobacterium
Mycoplasma
Neisseria
Nitrobacter
Nitrosomonas
Photobacterium
Plasmids
Prokaryotes
Proteobacteria
Proteus
Pseudomonas
8.6.3Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Ralstonia
Rhodospirillum
Rickettsia
Salmonella
Serratia
Shigella
Sisomycin
Spirillum
Spirochaetales
Staphylococcus
Streptobacillus
Streptomyces
Treponema
Vibrio
Xanthomonas
Yersinia

8.2.0, Bacteria, Diseases
8.2.1 Bacteria diseases of plants
8.2.2 Bacteria in humans, bacterial diseases
Bacteria in food, the 2-hour and the 4-hour rule
8.12 Bacterial infections, germ theory, Pasteur, Koch
Diarrhoea
Meningitis
Pneumonia
Sepsis
13.3 Contamination by bacteria, eggs
8.3.0, Bacteria, Gram stain
8.3.1 Gram-negative anaerobic cocci
8.3.3 Gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci
8.3.4 Gram-negative chemolithotrophic bacteria
8.3.5 Gram-negative facultative anaerobic rods
8.3.6 Gram-positive cocci
8.3.7 Gram-positive, spore-forming rods and cocci
8.3.8 Gram-positive, non-sporing rods, asporogenous
8.4.0 Bacteria, Phylum
The phyla with highest number of pathogenic genera include Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacillota, (former: Firmicutes), Bacteroidetes and Spirochaetes.
8.4.1 Phylum Actinomycetota
8.4.1 Phylum Actinobacteria
8.4.2 Phylum Bacteroidetes
8.4.10Phylum Bacillota (former: Firmicutes)
8.4.2 Phylum Bacteroidota
8.4.3 Phylum Chlamydiae
8.4.4 Phylum Chloroflexi
8.4.5 Phylum Cyanobacteria
8.4.6 Phylum Fusobacteria
8.4.7 Phylum Planctomycetes
8.4.8 Phylum Proteobacteria
8.4.8 Phylum Pseudomonadota
8.4.9 Phylum: Spirochaetae
Phylum Actinobacteria, Actinomycetes, are pathogens.
Phylum Actinobacteria are found in soils.
Corynebacterium michiganense bacterial canker of tomato, Solanum tuberosum
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron uses glycan metabolism in the colon to harvest energy from otherwise indigestible sugars, e.g. galactose and mannose.
Phylum Chloroflexi are photosynthetic bacteria.
Phylum Cyanobacteria are the "blue-green algae".
Phylum Fusobacteria are Gram -ve pathogens and cause skin ulcers.
Phylum Planctomycetes are aquatic bacteria.
Phylum Proteobacteria are pathogens.
8.50 Bacteria, Physiology
8.5.1 Acetic acid bacteria, mother of vinegar
8.5.3 Anoxygenic phototropic bacteria
8.5.4 Bioluminescent bacteria
8.5.5 Colourless sulfur-oxidizing bacteria
8.5.6 Cyanobacteria
8.5.7 Denitrifying bacteria
8.5.8 Gliding bacteria
8.5.9 Green, multicellular filamentous bacteria
8.5.10 Green sulfur bacteria
8.5.11 Hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria
8.5.12 Methane-producing bacteria
8.5.13 Methanotrophs, (methane to methanol)
8.5.14 Mycoplasmas
8.5.15 Myxobacteria
8.5.16 Nitrifying bacteria, nitrification
8.5.17 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
8.5.18 Oxygenic phototropic bacteria
8.5.19 Purple nonsulfur bacteria
8.5.20 Purple sulfur bacteria, external sulfur granules
8.5.11 Pseudomonas carboxydororans, hydrogen oxidizing bacteria
8.5.22 SCOBY, Symbiotic Colony Of Bacteria and Yeast
8.2.2 Sulfate and sulfur-reducing proteobacteria
8.5.25 Sulfonamides, sulfa drugs.
8.20 Sulfur-reducing bacteria
8.5.27 VRE bacteria (Vancomycin Resistant Bacteria), nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infection
8.5.28 Yoghurt and lactic acid bacteria "Yakult"
8.6.0 Bacteria, Shape
See diagram Bacteria shapes
The basic bacterial cell shapes are coccus (circle or spherical), bacillus (rod-like), spiral (corkscrew-like), filamentous (elongated)
8.6.1 Bacillus, Rod-shaped bacteria
8.6.2 Budding bacteria / appendage bacteria. (stalked bacteria)
8.6.3 Comma shape bacteria, vibrio
8.6.4 Sheathed bacteria
8.6.5 Spherical cocci (coccus)
8.6.6 Spiral bacteria, spirillum, spirochete, corkscrew shape bacteria
8.6.7 Spiral and curved bacteria
8.7.0, Bacteria, Experiments
8.5.2 Anti-microbial disinfectants
8.10 Different bacteria experiment, (Primary)
8.26 Lenski's experiments with Escherichia coli
8.5.8 Pasteur's spontaneous generation experiment
8.70 Rhizobium bacteria, (Experiment)
8.6.5 Spherical cocci (coccus)
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Diplococcus, Gonococcus, Pneumococcus, Nitrococcus
Staphylococcus aureus, parasite of human and animals, produces enterotoxins, food poisoning, pyrogenic and respiratory infections.
Streptococcus mutans causes tooth decay.
It needs both glucose and fructose from the breakdown of sucrose in food and soft drinks to produce plaque and lactic acid.
Streptococcus faecalis and Streptococcus faecium, (enterococci), are intestinal bacteria, but live also on plants.
They are indicators of insufficient hygiene, and, together with Escherichia coli, indicate the presence of faecal material.
Escherichia
Streptococcus pyogenes are systemic in respiratory tract, and cause infectious diseases, e.g. scarlet fever.
Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus is used for yoghurt production, together with Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
Diplococci (Pneumococcus), streptococci, stapylococci, sarsina, tetrad, round, ovoid.
8.61 Rod-shaped bacillus Bacillus species
"Bacillus"" or plural "bacilli", refers to any rod-shaped bacterium.
(Latin bacillus stick). For some people, "bacillus" means any pathogenic bacterium.
Any rod-shaped species may be describes as being "bacillary"
"Coccobacillus" and "coccobacilli" are short rods, e.g. Bordetella, Brucella, Francisella, Haemophilus
Also, "Bacillus" refers to a genus of bacteria:
Bacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium, with over 250 named species.
some Bacillus species may be dependent on oxygen, but others can survive in the absence of oxygen.
If not enough nutrients, a Bacillus cell can become a dormant endospore, which can survive for a long time. Family Bacillaceae contains Bacillus and Clostridium species.
Bacillus species are resistant to antibiotics and may cause food spoilage. Bacillus species are used to produce the enzyme alpha amylase for starch hydrolysis.
Bacillus anthracis, causes disease anthrax, in hoofed animals, rarely in humans as cutaneous anthrax black scab (eschar), but may become fatal.
Bacillus cereus, soil bacteria, may cause food poisoning (enterotoxins)
Bacillus subtilis, is used for biotechnology and for teaching
Bacillus thuringiensis, produces the protein Cry5B, used as a crop pesticide and could be used to clear nematode parasites from people.
8.6.6 Spiral bacteria, spirillum, spirochete, corkscrew shape bacteria
* Spirillum (helical-shape), Campylobacter jejuni, pathogen in food, Helicobacter pylori, stomach ulcer (peptic ulcer).
* Spirochete, Family Spirochaetes Leptospira Weil's disease
Treponema syphilis, yaws, Borrelia, Lyme disease.
8.6.3 Comma shape bacteria, vibrio, slight twist
Vibrio cholera
Nitrobacter
Nitrosomonas
Pseudomonas
Nitrobacter oxidizes nitrite
Nitrosomonas oxidizes ammonia
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a soil bacteria, causes food poisoning and various infections, e.g. burns, urinary and respiratory tract
Pseudomonas syringae causes bacterial gall on oleanders and lilac, angular leaf spot on cucurbits, e.g. cucumbers, halo blight of bean
Pseudomonas tumefaciens, crown gall organism
Vibrio cholerae, causes cholera, intestinal infection, diarrhoea, severe dehydration, infected from water contaminated with human faeces.
Cholera enterotoxin causes life-threatening diarrhoea.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a marine bacteria, causes foodborne disease, gasteroentritis, from raw sea food.
8.7 Bacteria classified by diseases
Chancroid, (Haemophilus ducreyi)
Burkholderia pseudomallei, melioidosis disease often occurs after floods in tropical areas.
Pseudomonas syringae, bacterial blight of mulberry and pea, bacterial brown spot of bean, bacterial canker of stone fruit.
Ralstonia solanacearum, causes bacterial wilt disease in bananas.
Xanthomonas campestris, bacterial black spot of mango, cucurbits, e.g. cucumbers.
Phylum Spirochaetes are Gram -ve, pathogens.
8.4.1 Phylum Actinomycetota
Example: Gardnerella vaginalis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (tuberculosis), Mycobacterium leprae (leprosy)
Actinobacteria, Gram-positve bacteria with a high guanine and cytosine content, branching filamentous growth, do not stain well with the Gram stain.
Actinobacteria include antibiotic producing bacteria and some pathogens.
Actinomycetes, are pathogens found in soils.
Corynebacterium michiganense bacterial canker of tomato, Solanum tuberosum.
Actinobacteria, Actinomycetales, Micromonosporaceae.
Micromonospora.
8.4.2 Phylum Bacteroidetes
Phylum Bacteroidetes, are Gram-negative non-sporing anaerobic bacilli, are pathogens in the human mouth.
Genera Erysipelothrix and Lactobacillus grow in chains and filaments.
Genus Bacteroides, gram-negative, anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria Normal inhabitants of the oral, respiratory, intestinal, and urogenital cavities of humans, animals, and insects. Some species may be pathogenic. comprise a major portion of the human normal flora, predominating in the intestinal tract. Capnocytophaga canimorsus, commensal, from dog bites.
Porphyromonas gingivalis, causes peridontal disease.
Prevotella intermedia, occurs in gut and vagina, and causes peridontal disease, .
8.4.3 Phylum: Chlamydiae
Phylum Chlamydiae are pathogens.
Chlamydia.
Chlamydophila psittaci (Psittacosis)
Chlamydophila pneumoniae.
8.4.4 Phylum Chloroflexi, Chlorobacteria
Chlorobacteria, Green non-sulfur bacteria, photosynthetic bacteria.
8.4.5 Phylum Cyanobacteria, Blue-green algae, Cyanobacteria
16.3.5.2.6 Phycobilin, phycocyanin, phycoerythrin, Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta
The "blue-green algae", now called "Cyanobacteria", are prokaryotic and a form of bacteria that contains chlorophyll and so photosynthetic.
Cyanobacteria are called "the blue-green algae", because they are photosynthetic and aquatic, but they are more like bacteria than true algae.
Cyanobacteria are grey-green, violet, brown, purplish or red, and contain phycocyanin, phycoerythrin.
They occur as single cells, colonies and more complex structures.
They have no membrane-bound organelles in the cells, so they have no nucleus defined by a membrane, no dispersed photosynthetic pigments, no chloroplasts.
Sexual reproduction and motile cells have not yet been observed.
Similar to the Cyanobacteria are marine and freshwater phytoplankton that cause algal blooms, e.g. Synechoccus, Prochloron, Pochlorococcus.
Blue Green algae genera: Anabaena, Gloeotrichia, Microcystis. Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Spirulina
Mastigocladus laminosus, is a thermophilic cyanobacterium that lives in hot springs.

Nostoc, (Nostoc commune), cyanobacterium, Class Cyanophyceae, Family Nostocaceae, Nostoc commune, star jelly, witch's butter, mare's eggs, can fix nitrogen, small gelatinou globules or colonial mass, has no nucleus nor internal membranes, divide by binary fission, blue-green when wet, brown-black shrivelled crust when dry, edible, grows in soil or in damp grass, or on wet rocks, widespread in Asia
It produces green chlorophyll for photosynthesis and a blue pigment phycocyanin, C13H10N2O, for photosynthesis under low light conditions and is the origin of the name cyanobacteria, “blue-green” bacteria.
Nostoc pruniforme, forms colonies, green-grey, gelatinous spheres.
Nostoc can fix only a small amount of nitrogen compared to fixation by legumes,. but it is useful in paddy production of rice.
The name Cyanobacteria, "the blue-green algae", because photosynthetic and aquatic, but they are more like bacteria than true algae.

Spirulina, Phylum Cyanobacteria
Spirulina is a mixture of Arthrospira platensis, (Spirulina platensis) + Arthrospira maxima (Spirulina maxima), edible nutritious algae used as a food and in health drinks.
Spirulina maxima and Spirulina platensis, are nitrogen-fixing and live in leaf cavities of floating ferns, China, Family Phormidiaceae.
The dried herb is sold as spirulina powder.
Cyanobacteria, are the "blue-green" bacteria.
Unicellular, filamentous, colonial, photosynthetic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, pigments (cyanophycin, allo-phycocyanine and erythro-phycocyanine).
The pigment chlorophyll a, (C55H72O5N4Mg), occurs in green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
8.4.6 Phylum: Fusobacteria, Fusobacteria
Fusobacterium nucleatum gram-negative, anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria, produces butyric acid
Occurs in the normal flora of the oral cavity
Causes infections of the upper respiratory tract and pleural cavity, but may be associated with periodontal disease and preterm births
8.4.7 Phylum Planctomycetes, Planctomycetes.
Ovoid, budding with holdfast, aquatic bacteria.
8.4.8 Phylum Pseudomonadota, (former name Phylum Proteobacteria), are pathogens.
Burkholderia pseudomallei, causes melioidosis disease often occurs after floods in tropical areas.
Pseudomonas syringae, causes bacterial blight of mulberry and pea, bacterial brown spot of bean, bacterial canker of stone fruit.
Ralstonia solanacearum, causes bacterial wilt disease in bananas.
Xanthomonas campestris, causes bacterial black spot of mango, cucurbits, e.g. cucumbers.
8.4.9 Phylum: Spirochaetae, Class: Spirochaetes, Spirochaete,corkscrew shape.
Spirochaetes have cells with a tight spiral shape and an internal flagellum.
Spirochaetes: Treponema, Leptospira
Family Brevinemataceae, Brevinema.
Family Brachyspiraceae, Brachyspira pilosicoli, Brachyspira aalborgi, cause intestinal spirochaetosis.
Family Leptospiraceae: Leptospira.
Family Spirochaetaceae: Borrelia Spirochaeta, Treponema.
8.3.1 Bacteria in humans, bacterial diseases.
See diagram 9.205.1: Different bacteria.
Bordetella pertusssis causes contagious whooping cough in children.
In the healthy person, both the human genome and the microbiome, (of bacteria contribute to metabolic pathways.
Bacteria contribute to the health of a person in the following ways:.
* Toxin degeneration.
* Micronutrient synthesis.
* Glycan and amino acid metabolism.
Microorganisms are used to make foods, e.g. yoghurt and cheese.
However, but other microorganisms "spoil" food, if given the appropriate conditions of temperature, pH and moisture.
Microbial contamination accounted for 34% of all food recalls by Food Standards Australia New Zealand, between 1-1-1990 and 31-12-2004.
Recalls: 41% due to Listeria monocytogenes contamination, 19% due to Salmonella contamination and 13% due to (Escherichia coli) contamination.
People most affected by food poisoning are the elderly, the young and immune suppressed individuals.
Bacterial diseases:
Actinomycosis, (Actinomyces israelii and polymicrobial), Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis). Bacterial conjunctivitis (Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Haemophilus, Chlamydia species)
Bartonellosis (Bartonella bacilliformis), Brucellosis (Brucella species), Buruli ulcer (Mycobacterium ulcerans),
Campylobacter enteritis (Campylobacter species), Cat-scratch disease (Bartonella henselae), Chancroid (Haemophilus ducreyi),
Diarrhoea disease, gastroenteritis (Campylobacter bacterium), Diphtheria (Corynebacterium diphtheriae)
Ehrlichioses, (tick disease) (Ehrlichia ruminantium),
Granuloma inguinale (Klebsiella granulomatis), Klebsiella

Leprosy, Hansen's disease (Mycobacterium leprae), Leptospiros (Leptospira species), Listeriosis (Listeria monocytogenes),
Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei), Meningitis (Haemophilus influenzae type B),
Nocardiosis (Nocardia asteroides),
Parapertussis (Bordetella parapertussis),
Plague (Yersinia pestis),
Bacterial Pneumonia (Streptococcus spp. and other species),
Rat bite fever (Streptobacillus moniliformis),
Rickettsioses (Orientia tsutsugamushi),
Salmonellosis (Salmonella enterica), Salmonella
Shigellosis (Shigella sonnei),
Trench fever (from lice bites) (Bartonella quintana),
Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis),
Tularemia (rabbit fever) (Francisella tularensis),
Typhoid fever, (Salmonella serotype Typhi),
Vibrio cholera (Vibrio cholerae),
Yersiniosis (Yersinia enterocolitica).
8.10 Different bacteria experiment, (Primary)
Bacteria, (Singular: Bacterium), live like fungi, but they are so small you cannot see them except with a microscope, but you can see what they do.
Experiment
Dissolve soup powder or cube in a cup of hot water and pour evenly into 3 clean glasses.
Add 1 teaspoon of salt to one glass.
Add 1 teaspoon of vinegar (acetic acid), to the second glass.
Add nothing to the third glass.
Cover the glasses and leave them in a warm place for 2 -3 days.
The first two glasses remain clear, because they contain substances that stop bacteria growing.
The liquid in the third glass is cloudy, because it contains so many bacteria.
8.5.18 Oxygenic phototropic bacteria
Purple phototropic bacteria get their energy from light, but do not give off oxygen.
They have their own type of chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments.
Purple sulfur bacteria normally respire anaerobically and oxygen hinders their growth.
They use hydrogen sulfide in an aquatic habitat that has light, but no oxygen.
8.5.6 Cyanobacteria.
8.5.3 Anoxygenic phototropic bacteria.
These purple sulfur bacteria, have internal sulfur granules.
Chromatium okenii are photosynthetic sulfur bacteria that deposit sulfur outside the cells.
8.5.20 Purple sulfur bacteria, external sulfur granules
Ectothiorhodospira mobilis are photosynthetic sulfur bacteria that deposit sulfur outside the cells.
8.5.19 Purple nonsulfur bacteria
They are mostly anaerobic and do not use hydrogen sulfide, e.g. Rhodobacter adriaticus.
They appear as rods, curved rods, ovoid, flagellated, ring shape or spiral shape and are used to treat odorous swine wastewater.
8.1.5 Green non-sulfur bacteria
Green non-sulfur bacteria, photosynthetic bacteria, e.g. Heliobacterium.
8.5.9 Green, multicellular filamentous bacteria
Multicellular filamentous green bacteria, e.g. Chloroflexus.
8.5.10 Green sulfur bacteria
Green sulfur bacteria, e.g. Chlorobiums.
8.5.15 Myxobacteria.
Myxobacteria form rod-shape aggregates to form fruiting bodies when nutrients are low, e.g. Chondromycesus.
8.2.2 Sulfate and sulfur-reducing proteobacteria
They are sulfur or sulfate reducers, anaerobic, and live in an oxygen-free aquatic habitat.
Desulfomaculum is soil dwelling and causes tinned meat spoilage. called "sulfide stinker".
8.5.8 Gliding bacteria
Fruiting bacteria that leave a visible trail of slime.
Beggiatoa is a filamentous gliding bacterium that oxidizes sulfur compounds in sulfur springs, sewage works and hydrothermal vents, rotting seaweed, and the surface of plant roots in swamps.
8.6.4 Sheathed bacteria
They live within a sheath that becomes a tube, and are found in sewage works, and the blooms in autumn leaves. e.g. Clonothrix.
8.6.2 Budding bacteria / appendage bacteria (stalked bacteria).
They have extensions (prosthecae), involved in reproduction, e.g. Blastobacter.
8.6.7 Spiral and curved bacteria
They are aerobic, motile, helical / vibrioid, Gram-negative, e.g. Spirillum.
Bdellovibrio are predators on other bacteria and are less than a tenth of their size.
Helicobacter. are nonmotile Gram-negative curved bacteria, e.g. Ancyclobacter.
Campylobacter jejeuni occurs in contaminated food, (especially poultry), causing high fever, diarrhoea.
8.5.28 Yoghurt and lactic acid bacteria "Yakult"
Lactic acid bacteria convert lactose to lactic acid by a form of fermentation. They are used to preserve milk and perhaps have the probiotic function of increasing pH in the intestine to lower the activity of harmful bacteria.
Lactic acid bacteria are mainly Lactobacillus Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Lactococcus lactis, and Streptococcus.
Yoghurt is prepared from two species of bacteria:
1. Chains of cocci or diplococci of Streptococcus thermophilus.
2. Rod-shape bacilli of Lactobacillus acidophilus or Lactobacillus bulgaricuse.
The bacteria have been renamed:
Lactobacillus delbrueckii (subsp. bulgaricus), for (Lactobacillus bulgaricus).
Streptococcus salivarius (subsp. thermophilus), for Streptococcus thermophilus.
Lactobacillus casei is a species of non-starter lactic acid bacteria, (NSLAB), found in ripening Cheddar cheese.
Yakult was developed by Dr Minoru Shirota (1899-1982), as Lactobacillus casei strain shirota for production of "Yakult", the yogurt-like probiotic drink.
Probiotic organisms, usually lactic acid bacteria, (LAB), and bifidobacteria (formerly Lactobacillus bifidus), are live microorganisms, thought to be beneficial to the host organism, usually consumed as part of fermented foods with specially-added active live cultures, e.g. yoghurt.
Lactobacillus acidophilus occurs naturally in the human gastrointestinal tract, mouth and vagina, and may be used with Streptococcus salivarius (subsp. thermophilus), and with Lactobacillus delbrueckii (subsp. bulgaricus), to produce acidophilus-type yoghurt.
Leuconostoc citrovorum with Streptococcus lactis convert lactic acid to aldehydes and ketones to produce buttermilk with its characteristic flavour and aroma.
8.5.22 SCOBY, Symbiotic Colony Of Bacteria and Yeast.
Kombucha is tea fermented with a scoby that appears as a growth of "mushroom".
The SCOBY may contain:
Bacteria: Gluconacetobacter kombuchae, occurs only in kombucha, forms acetic acid and gluconic acid, and builds the SCOBY "mushroom".
Lactobacillus and Pediociccus form lactic acid and scoby slime.
The yeast Zygosaccharomyces kombuchaensis occurs only in kombucha, forms acetic acid and gluconic acid, and builds the SCOBY "mushroom".
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomycodes ludwigii, Saccharomycodes apiculatus, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, all form alcohol or acetic acid.
Different forms of SCOBY can be used for ginger beer, kefir, mother of vinegar, tibicos and sourdough.
8.5.25 Sulfonamides, sulfa drugs.
See diagram 14.12: Sulfanilamides, sulflilamide, sulfamethoxazole.
Sulfanilamide, p-aminobenzenesulfonamide, Toxic if ingested, liver toxin.
The first of the antibacterial drugs, the sulfonamides, were found effective against the cocci infections caused by the bacteria streptococci, gonococci and pneumococci.
The basic compound is called sulfanilamide, (sulphanilamide, sulfamine, 4-aminobenzenesulfonamide), C6H8N2O2S.
Many derivatives can be made from this compound by modifying the molecule to change its potency or reduce side effects or toxicity.
The effectiveness of these drugs depends on maintaining the basic structure and shape of the molecule.
One of the essential growth compounds for most bacteria susceptible to the sulfonamides is p-aminobenzoic acid, (4-aminobenzoic acid), C7H7NO2.
Bacteria absorb a sulfonamide, because its shape and charge distribution is similar to p-aminobenzoic acid, and then they cannot metabolize it.
Bacteria use p-aminobenzoic acid to produce folic acid, but, unlike humans, cannot absorb folic acid from their food.
Prontosil sulfanilamide requires the patient to drink copious quantities of water at the same time, because kidney damage was caused by earlier products.
The term "sulfanilamides" refers to the family of molecules based on sulfanilamide, so it is a chemical term.
The term sulfonamide (sulfa drugs), refers to drugs based on sulfanilamide, so it is a medical term.
Sulfonamides (sulfa drugs), do not kill bacteria, but prevent them growing and multiplying to allow natural immunity processes to deal with them.
Sulfonamide acetylation
Individual people fall into two genetic groups, those who acetylate drugs like sulfonamides fast and those who do so slowly.
While 90% of Japanese and Chinese are fast acetylators, only 40% of Americans, (both black and white), acetylate drugs fast.
Acetylation is often the first step in metabolizing and thus deactivating a drug.
Slow acetylators are exposed to higher levels of a drug given at the same dose.
The acetyl derivative of sulfa thiazole is not very soluble.
It tended to block kidney tubules and lead to death, so it was replaced by sulfadiazine.
The same acetylating enzyme deactivates some carcinogens, e.g. the aromatic amines benzidene and o-tolidine, used in dyestuff manufacture and as analytical reagents in the detection of blood and chlorine levels in water.
Slow acetylators are at higher risk of bladder cancer from these chemicals.
Examples of sulfa drugs:
Sulfamethoxazole / trimethoprim, "TMP-SMZ", C10H11N3O3S, (Bactrim, Septra, Co-trimoxazole, Cotrim, Sulfatrim).
Sulfasalazine, C18H14N4O5S, (Azulfidine, Sulfazine).
Sulfisoxazole, C11H13N3O3S, (Gantrisin, Truxazole).
8.12 Bacterial infections, germ theory, Pasteur, Koch
1. The symptoms of a bacterial infection are usually local redness, heat, swelling and local pain and sometimes the formation of pus.
By contrast viral infections usually affect many parts of the body, e.g. blocked nose, cough and headache.
However, local virus infections include conjunctivitis (pink eye, truck driver's eye), and herpes.
Herpes is painful, but most viral diseases feel more like an itch.
Pus is a yellow white viscous fluid formed in infected tissue, containing white blood cells (polymorphonuclear leucocytes) remains of cells, dead tissue, and micro-organisms.
Pus should be surgically drained as soon as possible.
Normal body temperature (orally) = 36.8 (+ or -) 0.5oC.
Fever is occurs if body temperature = or > 37.5oC (in the mouth), 37.2oC (under the arm), 38.0oC (rectum).
2. Infections of the skin by Staphylococcus aureus include the following:
* Infection of the hair follicles as small white head pimples at the base of hair shafts or as a swollen red boil (furuncle, carbuncle).
* Impetigo blisters then crusts on the surface of the skin of young children.
* Cellulitis infection below the skin surface.
* Infection of the eyelid glands (hordeolum, stye).
3. The germ theory developed by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch identified the cause of diseases, anthrax, tuberculosis and plague.
The principle of identification was set out in Koch's postulates in 1881:
* The germ is always present in the disease.
* The germ can be cultivated outside the body and preserved for generations.
* The disease can be reproduced in experimental animals.
* The organism causing the disease cannot be found in inoculated animals.
8.5.8 Pasteur's spontaneous generation experiment.
It was believed that living organisms could develop from non-living matter without pre-existing living matter
Also, it was believed that disease can develop spontaneously in damaged human tissue without any exterior organism being involved.
In 1859. Louis Pasteur, tested this belief by putting boiled clear meat soup into a swan neck flask.
Then the swan neck was heated to kill any living things in it.
The swan neck flask was left standing while dust fell from the air and accumulated in the loop of the swan neck.
Air from the atmosphere could still pass by the dust in the swan neck.
The meat soup remained clear.
Later, Pasteur tipped the flask so that the dust in the loop of the swan neck fell into the flask.
The meat soup in the flask became cloudy, because of bacterial infection from the dust in the air.
Experiment
Pasteur's flasks.
See diagram 9.5.5: Pasteur's flasks.
Set up the two Pasteur's flasks as above using meat soup from a bouillon cube or canned soup.
Do not touch the first flask so it can remain as a control.
Tip the second flask so that any dust from the air touches the soup.
Some teachers have put the first flask in a place where it is not moved for a long time and the meat soup in it still remains clear.
8.5.2 Anti-microbial disinfectants, (Experiment)
Anti-microbial disinfectants affect growth of Escherichia coli.
Joseph Lister, 1827-1912, England, first introduced aseptic surgery in 1867.
He used a spray of carbolic acid, (phenol C6H5OH), as a germicide to reduce mortality of post operative surgery.
Common anti-bacterials are ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, synthetic detergents, (QAC, Quaternary Ammonium Compounds), and phenols.
Phenols sterilize well, but are corrosive and toxic.
Detergents and 70% alcohol have some microbiocidal effect, but are not sporicidal and dry out skin surfaces.
Experiment
Prepare the plates and then put a "'wash" of Escherichia coli on the agar.
Sterilize small paper discs, from a hole punch, soak them into different anti-microbials preparations or use multi-disks impregnated with antibiotics.
Place the discs on the agar plates then incubate for two of days.
If the anti bacterial is effective, there is a clear ring around the disc where the Escherichia coli have not grown.
Use the width of this ring, the zone of inhibition, to indicate effectiveness of the anti-microbials preparations.
Pay strict attention to the disposal of waste.
8.3.3 Gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci.
Free-living anaerobic nitrogen fixers live in soil or water and combine gaseous nitrogen with carbon and hydrogen to make organic molecules.
Many organic molecules come from bacterially fixed nitrogen, e.g. Azotobacter, Azomonas, Azospirillum, Beyerinckia.
Some are free-living inside animals and cause disease, e.g. Neisseria Kingella, Moraxella, Acinetobacter.
The enteric bacteria, Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis cause spontaneous abortion (cattle), Brucellosis (milk or meat from infected animals).
Coliformes intestinal bacteria, contamination by faeces (lakes, rivers, swimming pools).
Gram-negative bacilli:
Enterobacter
Escherichia
Helicobacter.
Klebsiella
Proteus
Salmonella
Shigella
Yersinia
Ancylobacter is a ring-shaped bacterium.
Magnetospirillum magnetobacterium is a curved rod-shaped bacterium containing magnetic particles, magnetite Fe3O4, or greigite Fe3S4.
Neisseria.
Neisseria (bean-shape), Nitrobacter
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, gonococcus, gonococci, Gram-negative diplococci bacteria, causes the sexually transmitted infection gonorrhea.
Neisseria species appear in pairs, so called diplococci, resembling the shape of coffee beans.
Neisseria. meningitidis causes bacterial meningitis.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae can be isolated on Thayer–Martin agar (or VPN).
8.3.5 Gram-negative facultative anaerobic rods.
Cardiobacterium hominis causes endocarditis.
Enterobacter
Enterobacter
Klebsiella.
Proteus causes urinary infections.
Salmonella
Serratia
Shigella
Vibrio.
8.3.6 Gram-negative anaerobic cocci, e.g. Acidaminococcus.
Veillonella are very small cocci arranged mainly in clusters and pairs, e.g. Veillonella parvula.
8.3.4 Gram-negative chemolithotrophic bacteria.
Mineral inorganic substrates are oxidized in the cell.
Photolithotrops obtain energy from light, oxidize ammonia and nitrite, metabolize sulfur and sulfur compounds, precipitate iron oxides and manganese oxides.
Nitrobacter
Nitrosomonas
Metabolize sulfur, e.g: Thiobacillus.
Cellulose decomposition by celluloytic bacteria.
1. Aerobic: Achromobacter, Angiococcus, Bacillus Cellulomonas.
2. Anaerobic: Clostridium Methanococcus,.
3. Ammonification (Ammonifiers): Bacillus Pseudomonas.
8.5.16 Nitrifying bacteria, nitrification.
Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium produced during decomposition into nitrates in the soil.
Nitrosifyers, ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, reduce inorganic nitrogen compounds and oxidize ammonia to nitrite.
No bacteria can change ammonia to nitrate.
Nitrosomonas europaea
Nitrobacter winogradskyi
Thiobacillus converts sulfides to sulfates.
8.5.17 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
The free living, non-symbiotic bacteria include the following.
1. Anaerobes, e.g. Clostridium pasteurianum.
2.Aerobes e.g. Azotobacter.
3. Cyanobacteria, blue-green bacteria, e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc, photosynthetic bacteria.
4. Mutualistic, symbiotic bacteria, e.g. Rhizobium in legumes, Spirillum lipoferum.
8.5.7 Denitrifying bacteria.
Nitrogen-fixing organisms that convert nitrogen in the soil air into nitrates include Rhizobium in small nodules on the roots of legumes and blue-green algae in wet soils.
However, some denitrifying bacteria in wet soils convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas and so make nitrogenous substances unavailable to plants.
Denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrates or nitrites to nitrogen-containing gases.
Most denitrifiers produce nitrous oxide, N2O, instead of dinitrogen, N2, under aerobic conditions, e.g. Paracoccus denitrificans.
Bacillus denitrificans (Pseudomonas stutzeri), are denitrifying soil bacterium, under the anaerobic conditions of swampy or waterlogged soils
They decompose ammonia and nitrates to liberate nitrogen and reduce the available combined nitrogen in the soil.
Denitrification occurs in a diverse group of Gram-negative, motile bacteria, e.g. Pseudomonas denitrificans.
However, denitrification is an important stage in the nitrogen cycle that indirectly makes more nitrogen available to plants by turning nitrates that may remain unavailable deep in the soil or washed into the sea into nitrogen available from the air.
8.5.5 Colourless sulfur-oxidizing bacteria
Reduce H2S, S and S2O32-+ O2 or H2O > SO42- and 2H+.
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans is rod-shaped, oxidizes ferrous iron, e.g. iron pyrites, FeS2.
Iron-oxidizing and manganese-oxidizing and /or iron-depositing bacteria and manganese-depositing bacteria, e.g. Aquaspirillum.
8.5.11 Hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria
The hydrogen oxidizing bacteria use H2 as an electron donor and O2 as an electron acceptor with nickel-containing hydrogenases.
They may use CO2 as a carbon source and CO as an energy source.
O2 + 2H2 --> 2H2O.
Carboxydotrophic bacteria oxidize CO to CO2, e.g. Pseudomonas carboxydororans in the soil.
8.5.13 Methanotrophs, (methane to methanol)
Bacteria that can oxidize methane to methanol in aerobic reactions.
They are found living symbiotically in marine mussels and sponges near hydrothermal vents, e.g. Methanobacter.
Zymonas convert sugars to ethanol in the South American alcoholic drink, "pulque". which is made from the juice of the Agave cactus.
8.5.1 Acetic acid bacteria.
Acetic acid bacteria partially oxidize ethanol, into acetic acid, e.g. Acetobacter makes vinegar from grape wine.
They also synthesize cellulose to be excreted as a covering.
Mother of vinegar is a jelly-like membrane contains cellulose and acetic acid bacteria that forms in fermenting alcoholic liquids to convert alcohol into acetic acid with the help of oxygen from the air.
It is added to produce vinegar.
Mother of vinegar may form in unpasteurized vinegar if it still contains non-fermented sugar or alcohol contained in the vinegar.
It is harmless and can be filtered from the vinegar, which is still safe to consume, and used produce more vinegar from wine, cider, or other alcoholic liquids.
Clean mother of vinegar is safe to use, but it must be discarded if any fungus forms in it.
8.5.4 Bioluminescent bacteria.
Bacteria may emit light with enzyme luciferase, oxidation reaction, in live fish, light-emitting reaction, e.g Gardnerella , but Chromobacterium violaceum is NOT suitable for use in schools,
Erwinia carotovora causes bacterial soft rot on root and fleshy leaf bases, e.g. lettuce, celery, dahlia, black leg on potato.
Haemophilus ducreyi causes chancroid, soft chancres and inflammation of the inguinal lymph nodes.
Haemophilus influenzae causes haemophilus influenza (HIB), inflammation of the paranasal cavities, sinusitis, inflammation of the epiglottis, noisy breathing in children.
8.5.12 Methane-producing bacteria
Methane-producing bacteria are anaerobic bacteria found in mud, sewage, sludge and the rumen of sheep and cattle, e.g. Methanococcus
Iodophilic bacteria in the rumen stain blue with iodine, because they contain starch from decomposition of cellulose.
8.5.9 Gram-positive cocci
Staphylococcus
Streptococcus
8.3.7 Gram-positive, spore-forming rods and cocci.
Bacillus
Clostridium
Bacillus and Clostridium Gram-positive, but liable to become Gram-negative in ageing cultures.
Clostridium tetani has a bulging, spherical, terminal spore, ('drumstick’ form).
8.3.8 Gram-positive, non-sporing rods.
Cellulomonas biazotea is a cellulose-dissolving bacterium.
8.18 Rickettsias and chlamydias
They are obligate intracellular parasites and cannot be cultured.
Typhus, Spotted Fever, French Fever, Q Fever and Ehrlichiosis, Potomac Fever in horses.
Rickettsia, typhus.
Bartonella henselae causes cat scratch disease.
8.5.14 Mycoplasmas.
Mycoplasmas are the smallest living cells, with no cell wall, so are not affected by antibiotics. Most mycoplasma species are harmless except:
Mycoplasma pneumoniae causes pesistent coughing and lung irritation.
Mycoplasma genitalium causes genital inflammation and discharge.
8.20 Sulfur-reducing bacteria
Elemental sulfur is reduced to thiosulfate and dimethyl sulfoxide, e.g. Desulfococcus.
8.26 Lenski's experiments with Escherichia coli.
In the Long-Term Experimental Evolution Project, starting 24-2-1988, Richard Lenski, Michigan State University used it to establish 12 populations of Escherichia coli.
Then he studied succeeding generations of these separate populations for genotypic and phenotypic changes, e.g. changes in cell size and growth rates on glucose.
Every day, samples are transferred to a new nutrient medium.
After 30 years, and about 30, 000 generations, some of these bacteria had evolved larger cells, faster growth rate and the ability to metabolize citrate, which they had never done before.
These experiment provide long-term data on the genetics of bacteria and the rate of evolutionary change.
8.70 Rhizobium bacteria.
See diagram 9.209: TS Root nodule.
See diagram 9.72: Root nodules.
Rhizobium leguminosarum, is used to study symbiotic nitrogen fixation in nodules on legume roots.
Rhizobium can "fix" nitrogen from the air, which very few other living things can do.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria can fix aerobic nitrogen into combined nitrogen in the soil to be available to plants by combining gaseous nitrogen with carbon and hydrogen to make organic molecules.
Rhizobium radicicola bacteria enters the root hairs of some legumes and pass to the root cortex where they cause the formation of lumps, called "root nodules".
The fixed nitrogen compounds in the root nodules are available to other plants when the first plant dies and rots in the soil.
Seeds of legume crops, e.g. alfalfa, beans, clovers, peas, soybeans, may be inoculated with cultures of Rhizobium to increase yield.
Some legumes, e.g. cowpea and lablab bean, are grown until the flowering stage and then dug into the soil as "green manure".
When these plants rot, they leave nitrogen compounds in the soil, both from the leaves and root nodules.
Different crop plants require different strains of Rhizobium.
The strain of rhizobium found in peas, beans and clover has cilia over the whole cell.
The strain of Rhizobium found in cowpea, peanut and Cassia has a single cilium at one end.
Farmers can purchase commercial inoculum containing the strain appropriate for nodulation of their particular crop.
Experiment.
Dig up different legume plants and count the number of nodules and note the sizes of the nodules.
Cut open some nodules.
The inside of a nodule that is fixing nitrogen is a pink red colour.
Inactive nodules are brown or green inside.
8.5.27 VRE bacteria (Vancomycin Resistant Bacteria), nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infection
VRE bacteria (Vancomycin Resistant Bacteria) are species Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis, resistant to the antibiotic Vancomycin.
Enterococcus bacteria usually occur in the bowel and the female genito-urinary tract.
These bacteria can cause urinary tract infections if the peritoneal cavity is infected by bowel contents and if the bloodstream is infected by intravascular devices in hospitals used by unhygienic hospital staff, nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections.
13.3 Contamination by bacteria, eggs
Pathogenic bacteria, e.g. Salmonella enteritis, can contaminate eggs as they pass through the cloaca of the hen.
So the egg shell should not be contaminated with chicken faeces, but be washed with a sanitizing solution as soon as possible.
Although Salmonella infection is rarely caused by eating eggs, infections by, (Salmonella enteritis) and (Salmonella typhimurium), may occur if egg shells are broken by careless handling or if laid by unhealthy chickens.
Acetobacter
Acetobacter, a species of gram-negative bacteri, ellipsoidal to rod-shaped and straight or slightly curved, family Acetobacteraceae, occurs in flowers and fruit
Acetobacter aceti, spoils beers and wines, oxidizes ethanol, producing acetic acid
Actinomycetes
Actinomycete, group of unicellular filamentous bacteria, form a branching network of filaments, produce spores.
Actinomycetes can decompose cellulose, chitin and other molecules to form humus.
In high pH environments, it can form antibiotics, (e.g. actinomysin, streptomycin, tetracycline), insecticides, fungicides.
Actinomycetes are filamentous or rod-shape and do not form endospores, but form branching colonies that look like fungi.
Actinomyces species prefer non-acidic soils, are usually facultative anaerobes, but prefer anaerobic environment.
It can cause infections in cuts and abrasions in humans and cattle, e.g. actinomycosis.
Actinomyces are anaerobic Gram-positive, non-acid-fast, fragment into coccil and bacilli and not form conidia; (e.g. Actinomyces israelii).
Huge abscesses in the jaw are caused by Actinomyces israelii infecting humans and animals, e.g. lumpy jaw in cattle.
Corynebacterium diptheriae causes inflammation of the pharynx, toxins which affect the heart, diphtheria.
Streptomyces Streptosporangia,
Agrobacterium
Agrobacterium rhizogenes causes pathogenic crown gall of peaches and roses
Agrobacterium rubi causes pathogenic crown gall of grape
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, induces tumours in plants, non-pathogenic crown gall on base of stems or roots
Amikacin
Amikacin, C22H43N5O13, is an aminoglycoside, broad-spectrum bactericidal antibiotic derived from Kanamycin
It may damage kidneys and inner ear.
It binds to bacterial ribosomes to hamper protein synthesis.
It is used in short-term treatment of serious infections caused by susceptible strains of Gram-negative bacteria.
Azotobacter
Azotobacter vinclandii is a widely distributed free-living soil bacterium that can grow on a wide variety of carbohydrates, alcohols and organic acids.
Bacillus species
Bacillus ("bacillus" is term for a genus and a basic shape)
Bacillus ammoniagenes, bacteria from the colon reacts with ammonia from the urinary area to cause "nappy rash" in babies
Bacillus amylobacter, is NOT suitable for use in schools
Bacillus anthracis, anthrax, in hoofed animals, rarely in humans as cutaneous anthrax black scab (eschar), may become fatal, is NOT suitable for use in schools
Bacillus cereus, soil bacteria, may cause food poisoning (enterotoxins), is NOT suitable for use in schools
Bacillus influenzae (Haemophilus influenzae), first genome described of a free-living organism
Bacillus megaterium, produces lipase, protease and PHB, has specific cell size, suppresses fungus Rhizoctonia solani
Bacillus subtilis decomposes starch to produces amylase, lipase protease, and is Suitable for school use
Bacteroides
Bacteroides occur in the colon to cause colitis and colon cancer.
Bacteroides fragilis
Bacteroides forsythus
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron uses glycan metabolism in the colon to harvest energy from indigestible sugars, e.g. galactose and mannose
Bartonella
Bartonella henselae causes cat scratch fever
8.4.10Phylum Bacillota (former: Firmicutes)
Phylum Bacillota (former: Firmicutes), low guanine + cytosine group, Gram-positive cell wall structure, cocci or bacilli
Includes the medically significant pathogen Gram-positives.
Includes Veillonella and Mycoplasma, although they have lost Gram-positivity.
(Latin firmicutes tough skin), because of thick cell wall.
Megasphaera, Pectinatus, Selenomonas and Zymophilus have porous pseudo-outer membrane, so stain Gram-negative.
Many produce endospores, resistant to desiccation and extreme dry conditions.
The family, the heliobacteria, produce energy through anoxygenic photosynthesis.
Bacillota causes beer, wine, and cider spoilage.
Listeria
Bifidobacteria
Bifidobacterium bifidum (Lactobacillus bifidus), is a "friendly" bacteria.
It occurs in intestine of breast-fed infants where it protects against pathogens.
It occurs in some yogurts and probiotics.
Borrelia
Borrelia burgdorferi, carried by lice and ticks on mice and deer, and by tick Ixodes holocyclus in Australia, causes relapsing fever and Lyme disease.
Borrelia garinii, and Borrelia afzelii, Europe, all cause Lyme disease.
Borrelia recurrentis causes louse-borne relapsing fever.
Borrelia hermsii / Borrelia duttoni / Borrelia parkeri, cause tick-borne relapsing fever.
Campylobacter
Have twisted, cork-screw shapes and is distributed world wide
Campylobacter jejeuni, occurs in contaminated food, especially poultry, causes high fever, diarrhoea, gastroenteritis,.
Chlamydia
Chlamydiae have a complex intracellular cycle and are intracellular parasites, (e.g. Chlamydia trachomatis). Chlamydia trachomatis, causes:
1. Chlamydial Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, PID.
2. Trachoma (Granular Conjunctivitis),
3. Lymphogranuloma venereum (Climatic bubo), STI infection of lymph glands.
Chlamydia suis, affects pigs, Chlamydia muridarum, affects mice, Chlamydia pneumoniae, causes atherosclerosis.
Clostridium
Many species of Clostridium occur in the bowel.
1. Clostridium botulinum occurs soil or water bacteria, in improperly preserved food, causes botulism, food poisoning, often from canned food
It can be destroyed by high temperature cooking.
The toxin may affect central nervous system, so it is a neurological disease.
Botulinum toxins are the most poisonous known substances for humans
Clostridium botulinum, may cause sudden infant death syndrome
2. Clostridium sporogenes, is a strain of Clostridium botulism does not produce botulism neurotoxins, and is often found in soil.
Recently, a New Zealand milk company announced the presence of Clostridium botulism in its milk powder to cause concern and panic in countries that import milk products from New Zealand
However, the bacterium was in fact Clostridium sporogenes!
3. Clostridium difficile, may colonize bowel, cause "antibiotic-induced diarrhoea" or pseudomembranous colitis, chief causes of nosocomial (hospital-acquired), diarrhoea.
4. Clostridium perfringens, anaerobic soil bacteria, cause food poisoning and gas gangrene (enterotoxin), is NOT
suitable for use in schools, is commonly isolated from faeces.
5. Clostridium tetani, tetanus (lockjaw), from infected wounds, toxin causes contraction of muscles, is NOT
suitable for use in schools.
It occurs in normal bowel flora for up to 25% of population.
Cocoa
During fermentation, bacteria and yeast change sugars into alcohol and acids change the beans into chocolate.
At the fermenter, the wet beans are put in big boxes with holes in the bottom to let air in and juice run out.
During fermentation, bacteria attack the sticky white material around the beans, which become darker in colour, and develop the taste and chocolate smell.
Corynebacterium
Corynebacterium, is variably shaped, Gram-positive bacillus, makes mycolic acids (e.g. Corynebacterium diphtheriae), diphtheria which occurred before diphtheria toxoid immunization
. Corynebacterium amycolatum, causes hospital-acquired endocarditis
Enterococcus
Enterococcus faecalis (Streptococcus faecalis), occurs in intestinal flora, indicates faecal pollution, antibiotic resistant, hospital infection
Esculin Aesculin, (identifies Enterococcus)
Fusobacterium
It appears as a rod-shaped bacillus with pointed ends
Fusobacterium necrophorum, causes Lemierre's syndrome, throat abscess
Gardnerella
Bacterial vaginosis, (BV), non-specific vaginitis (not associated with STDs), causes a watery discharge.
People with bacterial vaginosis have a polymicrobial biofilm adherent to vaginal epithelial cells.
Normal vaginal flora is mainly rod-shaped Lactobacilli, but in BV there is an overgrowth of many species of bacteria.
Anaerobic bacteria including Gardnerella vaginalis, cause Bacterial vaginosis.
Gentamicin
Gentamicin, C21H43N5O7, is an amminoglycoside, from fermentation of Micromonospora purpurea or Micromonospora echinospora
It inhibits protein synthesis, antimicrobial against strains of Pseudomonas, Proteus, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, however it may damage the kidneys.
Gentamicin C, aminoglycoside from Gram-negative bacteria, prevents protein synthesis, growth of mycoplasma.
Gentamicin sulfate is a broad spectrum antibiotic.
Haemophilus
Haemophilus influenzae (Pfeiffer's bacillus, Bacillus influenzae), it is secondary invader to viral influenza, and caused meningitis in infants before Hflu-type B vaccine
Helicobacter
It infects the mucus lining of the stomach and duodenum causing peptic ulcers, gastritis, and duodenitis.
Helicobacter pylori (Campylobacter pylori), causes ulcers in the gastric lining, stomach ulcers, peptic ulcers, enteritis, chronic gastritis
Lactobacillus
Lactobacillus species convert lactose to lactic acid, occurs in decaying plant substances, is benign in vagina and intestines.
It is extensively used as a leavening agent to make fermentation products.
Lactobacillus bulgaricus, is used to produce yoghurt, curds, ferments glucose and lactose to produce lactic acid.
Lactobacilli acid formation causing dental caries.
Lactobacillus acidophilus (Doderlein's bacillus), ferments glycogen in vaginal epithelium to low pH lactic acid against pathogens.
8.3.1 SCOBY, Symbiotic Colony Of Bacteria and Yeast
8.3.0 Yoghurt and lactic acid bacteria "Yakult"
Legionella
Legionella pneumophila causes Legionnaires' pneumonia.
Leptospira
Leptospira species causes leptospirosis, e.g. Leptospira interrogans
Listeria
Listeria, phylum Bacillota
Listeria monocytogenes, an intracellular pathogen, causes listeriosis, affecting people with weakened immune systems.
It is especially dangerous for the elderly, pregnant women and diabetics, causes fever, headache, tiredness, cramps, diarrhoea, nausea and premature birth.
However, healthy people may not be affected.
Listeria infection may be caused by contamination of raw milk and processed milk products.
Listeria have flagella that confer motility.
Listeria monocytogenes are gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria, widely distributed in nature.
Occur in sewage, soil, silage, and from feces of healthy animals and man.
Causes encephalitis, meningitis, endocarditis, and abortion.
Micrococcus
Micrococcus luteus, (Sarcina lutea), has yellow colonies, specific colony colour, Suitable for school use.
Micromonospora
Micromonospora echinospora, produces the antibiotic extremely toxic calicheamicins, which may be used as an anti-cancer drug, because it target DNA, causing strand scission.
Micromonospora inositola, produces the antibiotic sisomicin.
Micromonospora inyonensis, produces the antibiotics mutamicin, netilmicin, sisomicin.
Micromonospora purpureochromogenes, produces the antibiotic gentamicin.
Mycobacterium
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes contagious lung infection, which can spread to other tissues, (TB).
Mycobacterium leprae causes Hansen's disease (leprosy), affects skin, mucous membranes, nerves to cause skin numbness and lumps, deformed limbs.
Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma genitalium has the smallest genome of a free-living organism.
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, inflammation of the alveoli in the lungs, pneumonia.
Mycoplasma sp. big bud (greening, virescence), e.g. tomato, potato, dock (thick bushy stems, reduced fruit yield), yellow crinkle of papaya.
Neisseria
Gram-negative cocci, occurs often in the pharynx.
Neisseria meningitidis causes meningococcal meningitis.
Nitrobacter
Nitrobacter winogradskyi oxidizes the nitrite to nitrate and so are called "true nitrifying bacteria" or "nitrate producing bacteria".
Nitrobacter oxidizes nitrite to nitrate.
Nitrobacter, oxidation of the nitrites into nitrates, NO3-, nitrification.
2HNO2 + O2 + Nitrobacter--> 2HNO3 + energy.
NO2- + O2--> NO3-.
Nitrosomonas
Nitrosomonas converts ammonia to nitrites, NO2-, nitrification.
Nitrosomonas oxidizes ammonia and ammonia compounds to nitrous acid and are called nitrosifyers.
2NH3 + 3O2 + Nitrosomonas europaea--> 2HNO2 + 2H2O + energy.
nitrous acid + bases--> nitrates.
Photobacterium phosporeum
Photobacterium phosporeum is NOT suitable for use in schools, bioluminescent, needs saline conditions, rods and curved rods, fermentative metabolism.
Plasmids
A plasmid is small usually circular DNA molecule in bacteria cells that is not part of the bacteria's chromosome and is inherited separately.
These molecules were used by scientists to develop recombinant DNA techology, so that DNA could be transferred between cells without damaging the bacterial cells.
Recominant DNA is any new form of DNA created from different species.
However, recombinant DNA does occur in nature when it was discovered that the DNA between the so-called CRISPR sequences in a bacterial genome came from bacteriophage viruses.
So the CRISPR sequences in a bacterial genome are a sort of immune system to resist viral infection
.
Prokaryotes
A prokaryote organism has one cell, no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles, no mitochondria.
Prokaryote, Prokaryota, unicellular, cell has no nucleus, contain Bacteria (formerly Eubacteria), and Archaea (formerly Archaebacteria)
Eukaryote, Eukaryota, multicellular, cells have nucleus, all the animals, plants, fungi, and some unicellular organisms
Proteobacteria
Proteobacteria, Gram-negative bacteria (bacilli and cocci) with five subdivisions:
* Alphaproteobacteria. Include the cell dependent Rickettsia group, the facultatively intracellular Brucella group and the Bartonella group.
* Betaproteobacteria. Neisseria – cocci, mainly adherent in pairs and slightly elongated at right angles to axis of pairs, e.g. Neisseria meningitidis, Burkholderia pseudomallei.
* Gammaproteobacteria. Bacilli including the enterobacteria (Escherichia coli), and the genera Pseudomonas, Legionella and the curved vibrios, e.g. Vibrio cholera.
* Deltaproteobacteria. No medically significant bacteria.
* Epsilonproteobacteria. Curved and loosely spiral bacilli including the genera Helicobacter and Campylobacter.
Gram-negative curved and spiral bacilli, Vibrio, Spirillum, Campylobacter, Helicobacter
Proteus
The species Proteus vulgaris, are rod-shaped bacteria that occurs in soil, fecal matter, and sewage.
It is part of the normal human and animal intestinal flora, but it is an opportunistic pathogen that causes cystitis and inflammation of the kidney.
Proteus mirabilis is a Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium, which has swarming motility and a fishy odour.
It causes infections of the urinary tract, and hydrolyzes urea to ammonia to make urine more alkaline and form the calcium carbonate crystals in kidney stones.
Proteus vulgaris is NOT suitable for use in schools.
Proteus vulgaris, a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria, opportunistic pathogen causing cystitis and pyelonephritis, urinary tract, and other wound infections.
It occurs in soil, faecal matter, and sewage.
It s part of the normal human and animal intestinal flora and is widespread in the environment.
Pseudomonas
Phylum: Proteobacteria, Class: Gammaproteobacteria, Order: Pseudomonadales, Family: Pseudomonadaceae, (Pseudomonads)
Some strains of Pseudomonas bacteria can degrade hydrocarbons, e.g. oil.
Pseudomonas acruginosa, is NOT suitable for use in schools.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, is NOT suitable for use in schools.
It occurs in soil bacteria, food poisoning, infections, e.g. burns, urinary and respiratory tract, hospital-acquired infection.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa can reduce the amount of fixed nitrogen, (as fertilizer), by up to 50 percent.
2NO3- + 10e- + 12H+--> N2 + 6H2O.
It is said to be responsible for one-in-ten hospital-acquired infections, an opportunistic bacteria that attacks weakened immune systems.
It mutates rapidly and is acquiring resistance to antibiotics, e.g. ciprofloxacin, because of exposure to the disinfectant BSK, benzalkonium chloride.
Pseudomonas fluorescens, fluorescent, decomposes gelatine, floating mats of bacteria.
Pseudomonas solanacearum, is NOT suitable for use in schools.
Pseudomonas syringae, bacterial gall on oleanders and lilac, angular leaf spot on cucurbits, e.g. cucumbers, halo blight of beans.
Pseudomonas tabacci, is NOT suitable for use in schools.
Pseudomonas tumefaciens, crown gall organism.
Ralstonia
Phylum: Proteobacteria, Class: Beta Proteobacteria, Order: Burkholderiales, Family: Ralstoniaceae.
Rhodospirillum
Phylum: Proteobacteria, Class: Alphaproteobacteria, Order: Rhodospirillales, Family: Rhodospirillaceae.
Gram-negative, pink-coloured nitrogen-fixing bacteria rods.
Rhodospirillum rubrum is Suitable for school use.
Rickettsia
Not mobile, not spore-forming, variable forms bacteria - cocci, bacilli, threads
The body louse, Pediculus humanus corporis, may carry typhus (Rickettsia prowazeki), trench fever, (Rochalimaea quintana), and relapsing fever (Borrellia recurrentis).
Sisomycin
Sisomycin, C19H37N5O7, is an aminoglycoside broad-spectrum antibiotic, similar to gentamicin C1A, produced by bacterium.
Micromonospora inyoensis, effective against Gram-positive bacteria:
< a href="#EnterobacterH">Enterobacter
Escherichia
Klebsiella
Proteus
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Sisomicin sulfate salt, C19H37N5O7.5H2SO4.
Spirillum
Phylum: Proteobacteria, Class: Betaproteobacteria, Order: Nitrosomonadales, Family: Spirillaceae.
The 3 basic bacterial cell shapes are coccus, bacillus and spirillum.
Spirillum minus caused rat-bite fever.
Spirochaetales
Gram-negative, slender flexuous spiral filaments that are motile but no flagella, include Borrelia, Treponema and Leptospira.
Staphylococcus
Staphylococcus has Gram-positive cocci, stuck together in irregular clusters because of divisions in different planes, e.g. Staphylococcus aureus). Staphylococcus aureus ("golden staph"), transmitted from the nasal membranes, Gram-positive, golden yellow clusters, non motile, nonsporeforming facultative anaerobe, common parasite of human and animals, produces several enterotoxins, food poisoning (vomiting and diarrhoea), pyrogenic and respiratory infections, toxic shock syndrome, is NOT suitable for use in schools.
Indigenous Australians continue to live in conditions of socio-economic disadvantage reflected by a life expectancy 17 years less than non indigenous Australians (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare,
Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009).
This disparity is caused by infectious disease.
At Alice Springs Hospital, Staphylococcus aureus is the most common pathogen isolated from blood cultures.
This bacterium is associated with serious metastatic complications including infective endocarditis and has a mortality rate approaching 90%, if left untreated.
Staphylococcus albus (S. epidermis), forms white colonies and is Suitable for school use.
Streptobacillus
Phylum Fusobacteria.
Occurs as rods and chains.
Streptobacillus moniliformis causes Rat-bite fever, Haverhill fever.
Streptococcus
Phylum: Firmicutes, Class: Bacilli, Order: Lactobacillales, Family: Streptococcaceae.
Streptococcus has Gram-positive cocci, in chains caused by successive cell divisions in the same axis, e.g. Streptococcus pyogenes.
Occasionally mainly diplococcal, e.g. Streptococcus pneumoniae.
* Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), strain, causes hospital-acquired resistance to certain antibiotics.
* Streptococcus faecalis (Enterococcus faecalis) and Streptococcus faecium (enterococci), are intestinal bacteria, but live also on plants, are indicators of insufficient hygiene, and, together with Escherichia coli, indicate the presence of faecal material.
* Streptococcus lactis (Lactococcus), sours milk.
* Streptococcus mutans, primary bacterium for plaque formation to cause tooth decay.
It needs both glucose and fructose from the breakdown of sucrose in food and soft drinks to produce plaque and lactic acid.
Streptococcus mutans, and other oral bacteria in dental plaque on teeth, produce acids that dissolve tooth enamel leading to cavities (caries), infection of the tooth pulp (pulpitis), infection of the gum (gingivitis),infection of the gums and bone, (peridontitis) Vincent's disease (ulcerative gingivitis, trench mouth).
* Streptococcus pneumoniae, is common in upper respiratory tract, invades the lower respiratory tract to cause bacterial pneumonia, sinusitis, laryngitis, bronchitis, inflammation of the lungs, also, streptococcal meningitis, otitis media.
* Streptococcus pyrogenes, inflammation of the throat, sore throat, tonsillitis ("strep throat"), scarlet fever, necrotizing fasciitis, (GAS), streptococcal toxic shock syndrome.
* Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus is used for yoghurt production, with Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
Lactobacillus acidophilus occurs naturally in the human gastrointestinal tract, mouth and vagina, and may be used with Streptococcus salivarius (subsp. thermophilus), and with Lactobacillus delbrueckii (subsp. bulgaricus), to produce acidophilus-type yoghurt.
* Leuconostoc citrovorum with Streptococcus lactis convert lactic acid to aldehydes and ketones to produce buttermilk with its characteristic flavour and aroma.
Streptococcus thermophilus, ferments glucose and lactose at 50oC.
Streptomyces
The Streptomyces vegetative mycelium does not fragment into short forms, but conidia form in chains from aerial hyphae, e.g. Streptomyces griseus.
Streptomyces bacteria grow in damp soil and form a dust of spores when the soil becomes dry.
When rain hits the dry ground, an aerosol of water and soil can be breathed in to cause the "rain smell", "earth smell", from the terpene geosmin, C12H22O, produced by Streptomyces antibioticus and Streptomyces coelicolor.
Streptomyces antibioticus, Streptomyces griseus produce streptomycin antibiotic.
Streptomyces scabies causes common scab of potatoes, turnips, beetroot, called "potato scab".
Steptomyces kanamycetius
Steptomyces kanamycetius produces amikacin hydrate, C22H43N5O13.xH2O, aminoglycoside broad spectrum antibiotic.
Streptomycin
Streptomycin, Streptomycin A, amino cyclitol glycoside, parent of the streptomycin class, antimicrobial drug, protein synthesis inhibitor, antifungal agrochemical. An antibiotic derived from Streptomyces griseus, the first aminoglycoside, now out of favor due to resistance
Treponema
Treponema. spiral-shaped bacteria.
Treponema carateum causes the skin disease Pinta.
Treponema denticola destroys attachment of teeth.
Treponema pallidum subspecies, which cause treponematoses, e.g. syphilis, yaws.
Vibrio
Phylum: Proteobacteria, Class: Gammaproteobacteria, Order: Vibrionales, Family: Vibrionaceae.
Vibrio fischeri is NOT suitable for use in schools.
Vibrio cholerae, causes cholera, intestinal infection, diarrhoea, severe dehydration, infected from water contaminated with human faeces, cholera enterotoxin causes life-threatening diarrhoea.
Vibrio natriegens (Beneckea natriegens), needs sodium chloride, is used to study growth of micro-organisms.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a marine bacteria, in guts of fishes, it causes food-borne disease, gasteroentritis from raw sea food.
Vibrio vulnificus, wound infection, septicemia, gastrointestinal disease.
Xanthomonas
Phylum: Proteobacteria, Class: Gamma Proteobacteria, Order: Xanthomonadales, Family: Xanthomonadaceae.
Xanthomonas campestris causes bacterial leaf spot on cucurbits, e.g. cucumbers, and lettuce, pelagoniums, black rot of crucifers, angular leaf spot of zinnia.
Xanthomonas phaseoli is NOT suitable for use in schools.
Pneumonia
The leading cause of death in children under five worldwide, pneumonia is an infection of the lungs that can be caused by bacteria or viruses.
Symptoms include difficulty breathing, cough, fever or chills and phlegm.
Pneumonia caused by bacteria can be treated with antibiotics, and one of the most common types of pneumonia, caused by the bacterium treptococcus pneumoniae, can be prevented by vaccination.
Urinary tract infections (UTI) These infections occur when bacteria enter and multiply in any part of the urinary system, most commonly in the bladder and urethra.
UTIs are mainly caused by the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) and are the most common infection in humans worldwide.
Symptoms include a burning sensation when urinating, blood in the urine, and strong-smelling urine.
While UTIs can usually be easily treated with antibiotics, they can cause death if they develop into sepsis.
An estimated one-third of sepsis cases begin as UTIs.
Meningitis
This infection of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord, the meninges, causes fever, neck stiffness and pain, and a rash of purple or red spots that remain when you press on them.
While this disease can be caused by a virus or a fungus, bacterial meningitis is the most severe type, and can turn fatal within hours.
Wound infections
A wound in your body, whether from surgery or injury, allows bacteria to enter the body and cause disease.
An infected wound can swell, become red, feel warm, and ooze pus.
Chronic wounds affect 40 million people worldwide, including 420,000 Australians, each year.
The ageing population and increase in people with type 2 diabetes are drivers of an increase in chronic wounds.
If bacteria infecting a wound spread through the body and into the blood, it can trigger sepsis.
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea is the second-leading cause of death in children under five worldwide, killing over half-a-million children of this age globally each year.
Previously, most deaths from diarrhoea were caused by the accompanying dehydration, but sepsis resulting from bacterial infection represents a growing proportion.
Diarrhoea is a symptom of a range of infections, including bacterial, viral and fungal.
Infection with E. coli is one of the most common causes of diarrhoea.
Sepsis
One in five people worldwide die of sepsis, which occurs when bacteria enter the blood and rapidly grow, triggering an inflammatory response cascade that causes septic shock, organ failure, and, if not treated quickly enough, death.
In 40 per cent of cases, the type of bacteria causing the infection isn’t identified in time, making it difficult to treat and causing the cascade of bodily responses that can become fatal.
8.2.1 Bacteria diseases of plants
4.0.0 Bacteria
Bacteria can attack plants and cause them to rot.
They live in damp places and cause many diseases, e.g. wilting of tomato plants, rotting of the heart of lettuce.
Bacterial diseases include bacterial black spot of mangos, bacterial blight on mulberry trees and pea, bacterial brown spot of bean, bacterial canker of cherries and apricots, and bacterial canker on tomatoes.
These diseases cannot usually be cured, but they can be prevented by soaking seeds in very hot water for a short time.
Bacterial dieback in breadfruit.
Bacterial soft rot in banana
White thread disease of roots, bacterial wilts, stem rots and rusts in cassava.
Enterobacter
Enterobacter genus are Gram-negative gas-producing rods and occur found in faeces of humans and other animals, sewage, soil, water, and dairy products.
The flagella have a counterclockwise rotation that causes them to form a single bundle, soit moves in long, straight or curved spurts without change in direction.
Enterobacter cloacae occurs naturally in the human gut but is known to be pathogenic in hospital intensive care units.
Enterobacteria intestinal bacteria, causes urinary infections, by contamination of food, because of insufficient pasteurization and sterilization, recontamination
Escherichia
See diagram 9.3.70: T4 bacteriophage attacks Escherichia coli
Escherichia genus are Gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria that occur in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals.
They are non-spore forming, facultatively anaerobic, and are usually nonpathogenic.
Escherichia coli (Theodor Escherich, 1857-1911, Austria), pathogenic strains cause inflammation of urethra (urethritis), and bladder, (cystitis), "honeymoon disease", "traveller's diarrhoea", intestinal bacteria, food poisoning, certain strains cause gastroenteritis, haemorrhage colitis, haemolytic uremic syndrome, neonatal meningitis.
Escherichia coli may release vitamin K and is an indicator for contamination by faeces
Human faeces are 30% dry weight of dead bacteria
Escherichia coli are usually beneficial to humans and are widely grown for study in research projects.
Escherichia coli is used for genetic experiments on bacteria, and is Suitable for school use
Klebsiella
Klebsiella genus are non-motile, rod-shaped bacteria that have a polysaccharide-based capsule and are oxidase negative, frequent human pathogens.
They do not possess the cytochrome c oxidase enzyme, so are classified as Oxidase negative bacteria.
Klebsiella pneumoniae can cause infections in people with lessened immune sustems leading to hospital-acquired pneumonia.
Granuloma inguinale (Klebsiella granulomatis)
Klebsiella pneumoniae causes inflammation of lungs, klebsiella pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and bacteremia
Infections are difficult to treat and are often fatal.
Many strains of Klebsiella can fix nitrogen, i.e. they can reduce atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia and amino acids.
Salmonella
Genus Salmonella are motile, rod-shaped bacteria that utilizes citrate as a sole carbon source.
It is pathogenic for humans, causing enteric fevers, gastroenteritis, and food poisoning.
Salmonella typhi / Salmonella paratyphi, cause typhoid fever / paratyphoid fever, intestinal gastroenteritis and gall bladder infections, enlarged spleen, infection caused by contaminated food, and infected raw eggs.
Salmonella enterica, Serotype Typhimurium DT 104.
Serratia
Phylum: Proteobacteria, Class: Gamma Proteobacteria, Order: Enterobacteriales, Family: Enterobacteriaceae.
Rod-shaped Gram-negative bacteria, grows as pink slime in bathrooms.
Serratia marcescens is NOT suitable for use in schools.
Genus Serratia rod-shaped bacteria and occur in water, soil, plants, and the guts of insects and vertebrates.
They may produce a red pigment, prodigiosin, C20H25N3O, and can grow on bread, which appear to bleed.
They are generally harmless environmental bacteria, but, Serratia marcescens, is an opportunistic pathogen in humans, cause urinary tract infections and pneumonia.
Shigella
Genus Shigella is a facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that ferments sugar without gas production.
Shigella dysenteriae, an enteric bacteria, causes gastric dysentery, infection from contaminated food and water. Shigella dysenteriae can cause shigellosis (bacillary dysentery).
Yersinia
Yersinia pestis causes plague, bubonic plague, fever, swelling of lymph nodes (buboes), that burst releasing pus or bleed under the skin.
The black death was caused by strains of the bacterium (Yersinia pestis), identified by analysis of ancient DNA obtained from bodies of plague victims in England, France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands.
Yersinia enterocolitica, water and food borne pathogen, found especially in pork.
Yersinia pestis causes alimentary canal infections by consumption of food products contaminated with infected urine or faeces.
Yersiniosis (Yersinia enterocolitica), in humans.
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