School Science Lessons
Chemistry
2025-09-26a
Contents
Preparation instructions, calculation: 5.312
Prepare acetic acid: 9.1.10
Prepare acetylene: 16.4.6.1
Prepare acid-base indicators: 5.6.2
Prepare acids and bases: 11.0
Prepare agar solutions: 1.0, Microbiology
Prepare alcohol using immobilized yeast cells: 4.3.15
Prepare alkalis: 5.4.3
Prepare alum crystals: 35.2.16
Prepare aluminium hydroxide precipitate: 7.6.4
Prepare ammonia and ammonium compounds: 3.7.0
Prepare ammonia, Haber precess: 3.01
Prepare ammonia solution: 5.4.4
Prepare amyl acetate. (pear oil): 16.3.7
Prepare apple juice gel: 4.4.1
Prepare artificial gemstones: 12.10.1
Prepare aspirin crystals: 3.1.1
Prepare baking powder: 19.1.12
Prepare BAP solution: 3.3, Microbiology
Prepare bath salts: 12.1.28
Prepare bean curd: 7.8.7
Prepare beeswax candles: 8.1.24
Prepare Benedict's solution: 9.4.2
Prepare biology fixatives: 2.0, Microbiology
Prepare biology solutions: 3.0. Microbiology
Prepare boric acid crystals: 3.1.2
Prepare Bouin's solution: 2.2
Prepare bromine water: 12.19.9.1.1
Prepare buffer solutions: 12.12.1
Prepare butane: 16.6.4.1
Prepare Calberla's pollen stain: 7.11
Prepare calcium oxide: 34.2.7, CaO
Prepare camphor oil: 19.3.6
Prepare Canada balsam mounting solution: 6.1
Prepare candles: 8.1.24, beeswax candles
Prepare carbon dioxide: 3.4.0
Prepare carbon dioxide, sodium bicarbonate with vinegar: 19.1.7
Prepare Carnoy's solution: 2.3
Prepare casein plastic from milk: 3.3.5
Prepare chlorine: 12.19.7
Prepare chloroform: 16.1.8, trichloromethane
Prepare chrome alum: 12.8.10
Prepare chromium trioxide: 12.8.2, CrO3
Prepare cider from apple juice: 4.4.2
Prepare citric acid crystals with lemon juice: 12.6.1
Prepare copper compounds: 12.5.0
Prepare creams and ointments: 5.5.8
Prepare CRAF biology fixative solution: 2.4
Prepare crystals: 3.1.0
Prepare culture media to identify fungi: 4.0
Prepare cup of tea: 12.2.8
Prepare Czapek Dox solution: 1.4, Microbiology
Prepare DCIP solution: 7.16, action of enzymes
Prepare DPX mountant solution: 6.2
Prepare decoctions: 5.5.3
Prepare Delafield's haematoxylin solution: 7.15, microscopy stain
Prepare detergent, alcohol-based detergent: 12.5.10
Prepare dilute acids: 5.4.7
Prepare dilute acids and bases: 3.4.10, (Safety instructions)
Prepare dilute bases: 5.4.8
Prepare distilled water: 2.2.14
Prepare DOMESTOS solution: 3.8, Microbiology
Prepare DRBC agar solution: 1.5, Microbiology
Prepare egg recipes: 16.3.8, (See: 1. Scrambled eggs)
Prepare eggs for food: 13.0
Prepare Ehrlich's haematoxylin solution: 7.17, microscopy stain
Prepare eosin solution: 7.18, microscopy stain
Prepare esters: 16.3.9
Prepare ethanal with potassium dichromate: 16.3.2.7
Prepare ethanal with potassium manganate (VII): 16.3.2.6
Prepare ethane: 16.6.1.1, C2H6
Prepare ethanoic acid: 9.1.10
Prepare ethene: 16.4.3, ethylene, C2H4
Prepare ethyl butyrate, (pineapple oil): 16.4.3
Prepare ethyl chloride: 16.4.1
Prepare ethyl ethanoate: 16.4.2, ethyl acetate
Prepare ethyne: 16.4.5.6.1, acetylene, C2H2
Prepare excipients: 5.5.9, bulking substances
Prepare face cream emulsion: 7.5.4
Prepare Fehling's solution: 9.5.1
Prepare ferric tannate with tea leaves: 16.4.4
Prepare fibrous plaster board with plaster of Paris: 3.6.5
Prepare flour glue: 9.1.1
Prepare fluorescence staining of cells and tissues: 7.22
Prepare food, using microbiology: 4.4.0
Prepare formaldehyde-resorcinol resin: 3.3.6
Prepare forms of sulfur: 7.5.0
Prepare fresh material for microscope work (wet mount): 2.5.7
Prepare fruit salts, "health salts": 16.4.5
Prepare gases at standard conditions: 3.32, ammonia to wood gas
Prepare gel, silica gel: 7.4.2
Prepare gels in the home kitchen: 7.8.11
Prepare gelatine gel: 7.8.8
Prepare Giemsa stain: 7.19
Prepare glacial acetic acid: 9.1.10
Prepare glucose with starch: 16.7.15
Prepare glucose with sugar: 16.7.18
Prepare glycerine jelly solution: 6.3
Prepare Gram stain: 7.20, Microbiology
Prepare Gram's iodine solution: 3.11, Microbiology
Prepare hard water: 12.2.4
Prepare Haupt's adhesive solution: 6.4
Prepare haematoxylin stain: 7.23
Prepare herbal solutions: 5.5.0
Prepare herbal tinctures: 5.9
Prepare hydrochloric acid with sodium chloride: 13.3.27
Prepare hydrogen chloride / hydrochloric acid: 13.3.14
Prepare hydrogen bromide: 12.19.9.3
Prepare hydrogen fluoride: 12.19.7.1
Prepare hydrogen gas: 13.3.15
Prepare hydrogen iodide, HI: 12.19.6.1
Prepare hydrogen peroxide solution: 17.7.22
Prepare hydrogen sulfide: 13.3.16
Prepare hydroxides with ammonia solution: 3.7.6
Prepare immersion oil: 7.26
Prepare insect-fixing solutions: 5.0
Prepare insoluble salts: 12.10.10
Prepare invert sugar: 3.1.12
Prepare invisible ink: 3.2.0
Prepare iodine compounds: 1.0
Prepare jelly with fresh pineapple and tinned pineapple: 19.2.9.1
Prepare known concentration solutions: 5.4.0
Prepare lactic acid with milk: 12.7.10
Prepare lactic acid with sourdough: 4.4.3
Prepare lactose from milk or whey, using immobilized lactase: 4.4.4
Prepare lampblack: 8.1.25
Prepare lead-acid battery electrolyte: 32.5.3.6
Prepare lead-tin alloys in a casting mould: 3.61.0
Prepare lead dioxide and lead (II) nitrate: 12.9.4
Prepare Leishman's stain: 7.29
Prepare lime, quicklime: 34.2.7, CaO
Prepare lime, slaked lime: 34.2.8, CaOH2
Prepare limewater: 5.4.5
Prepare litmus solution: 15.00
Prepare Loeffler serum solution: 4.9, to identify fungi
Prepare Lugol's iodine solution: 3.14, Microbiology
Prepare magnesium carbonate precipitate: 7.6.5
Prepare manganates: 12.8.2
Prepare Mayer's haematoxylin solution: 7.28
Prepare mayonnaise and salad dressing emulsions: 7.5.7
Prepare metanil yellow solution: 18.00/a>
Prepare methane gas: 16.5.1.1
Prepare methyl chloride gas: 16.4.8
Prepare methyl green solution: 19.00
Prepare methyl salicylate: 16.4.9, oil of wintergreen
Prepare methylene blue solution: 7.30
Prepare Meyer's albumen solution: 6.5
Prepare microbiology cultures: 4.1.0
Prepare microbiology techniques: 4.3.0
Prepare microscopy stains and adhesives: 7.0
Prepare microcosmic salt: 12.9.1
Prepare molar solutions: 5.3.15
Prepare molar volume of oxygen with hydrogen peroxide: 17.7.21
Prepare monoprotic acid solution from unknown molarity acid: 12.11.4.8
Prepare mordants: 19.4.3
Prepare naphthalene crystals from mothballs: 12.8.3
Prepare natural buffer: 12.12.6
Prepare nitric acid: 13.3.17
Prepare nitric oxide: 13.3.18
Prepare nitrous acid: 13.3.21
Prepare nitrous oxide: 13.3.22
Prepare nitrogen dioxide: 13.3.19
Prepare nitrogen gas: 13.3.20
Prepare orange IV solution: 7.33
Prepare Orcinol-Bial's reagent: 4.11, to identify fungi
Prepare oxalic acid: 9.1.12
Prepare oxides by direct oxidation: 12.13.2
Prepare oxides by indirect oxidation: 12.13
Prepare oxygen absorbent: 12.12.7
Prepare oxygen gas: 12.12.0
Prepare ozone gas: 3.5.0
Prepare Papanicolaou stain: 7.34
Prepare permanent crease solution: 19.4.4
Prepare Peru balsam mounting medium: 6.6
Prepare phenolphthalein acid-base indicator: 30.01
Prepare phenylamine: 16.7.15
Prepare phloroglucinol solution: 7.35
Prepare phosphorus pentachloride: 12.9.3
Prepare phosphorus pentoxide: 12.9.4
Prepare phosphorus trichloride: 12.9.2
Prepare plant extracts acid-base indicators: 24.01
Prepare plant dyes: 3.30, (Primary)
Prepare plastics: 3.3.0
Prepare polymers: 3.3.0
Prepare potash alum: 12.14.2
Prepare potash from ash: 6.9.16
Prepare potassium dichromate: 12.8.6
Prepare potassium compounds: 4.0
Prepare potassium perchlorate crystals: 12.19.8.5
Prepare poultices: 5.5.6
Prepare preserving agents for cut flowers: 19.3.8
Prepare putty: 34.2.9
Prepare protein solutions: 16.6.1
Prepare quicklime: 34.2.7, CaO
Prepare reagents: 14.0
Prepare red cabbage acid-base indicator: 25.01
Prepare resazurin stain test for milk: 16.1.6
Prepare rayon: 3.3.8
Prepare reagents: 14.0
Prepare Ringer solution: 3.20, Microbiology
Prepare sugar crystals: 16.5.8
Prepare rose petal acid-base indicator: 26.01
Prepare safranin solution: 7.36
Prepare salt solutuons: 13.0
Prepare salts: 12.6.0
Prepare sauerkraut: 4.4.6
Prepare Scott's blueing solution: 3.22, Microbiology
Prepare sedimentary rocks: 35.4.18
Prepare self-leavened flour, "self-raising flour": 19.1.9, (See: 7.)
Prepare serial dilutions: 12.0
Prepare serial dilution, different % concentrations: 5.2.0
Prepare sets of apparatus: 2.2.7
Prepare silica / silicon compounds: 1.0
Prepare silly putty: 12.10.9
Prepare simple chemical rectifier: 33.3.5
Prepare slaked lime, lime: 34.2.8
Prepare slime, PVA slime: 3.3.11
Prepare soap: 12.4.0
Prepare soda lime: 34.2.12
Prepare sodium carbonate: 12.16.8, LeBlanc process
Prepare sodium carbonate: 12.16.7, Solvay process
Prepare sodium thiosulfate crystals: 12.18.6.1
Prepare sparklers: 15.4.15
Prepare standard sodium carbonate solutions: 5.4.6
Prepare stock materials and apparatus: 2.2.8
Prepare stock solutions: 5.7.0
Prepare streptomycin using Streptomyces griseus: 4.1.11
Prepare sulfides: 12.18.2.0
Prepare sulfur allotropes: 7.5.1
Prepare sulfur crystals: 35.2.17
Prepare sulfur, forms of sulfur: 7.1.5
Prepare sulfur dioxide by heating sulfur: 7.1.5.5
Prepare sulfur dioxide: 13.10.3
Prepare sulfur monochloride: 12.18.3.1
Prepare sulfuric acid: 12.16.4.0
Prepare sunbeam mists (NH3 + HCl): 7.8.15
Prepare tea, (cup of tea): 12.2.8
Thionyl chloride
Prepare tin (IV) chloride: 12.20.2
Prepare toluidine blue solution: 7.38
Prepare triodomethane, (iodoform): 16.1.13
Prepare trichloromethane, chloroform: 16.1.8
Prepare turpentine copying fluid: 9.1.4
Prepare universal indicator solution: 37.00
Prepare urea-formaldehyde resin: 3.3.12
Prepare verdigris with copper and vinegar: 12.11.1
Prepare vinegar from wine: 19.1.15
Prepare vinegar with (Acetobacter aceti): 4.4.7
Prepare "volcanos" with baking soda: 12.15.8
Prepare wallpaper paste: 9.1.3
Prepare wine from grape juice and prepare vinegar from wine: 4.4.8
Prepare wood gas and wood tar by heating sawdust: 16.5.2
Prepare Wright's stain: 7.29
Prepare xylene and methylbenzoate solution: 3.28
Prepare Ziehl-Neelsen stain: 7.40
Prepare Zenker's solution: 2.12
Prepare zinc sulfate crystals: 12.10.8
11.0 Prepare acids and bases
molarity 1 × volume 1 = molarity 2 × volume 2, M1V1 = M2V2
Prepare dilute acids
Acetic acid 3 M: Dilute 172 mL of 17.4 M acid to 1 litre of water, (99-800 px acetic acid, ethanoic acid).
Hydrochloric acid 3 M: Dilute 258 mL of 11.6 M acid to 1 litre with water, (35% hydrochloric acid).
Hydrochloric acid 4 M: Dilute 400 mL of 10 M acid to 1 litre of water, for normal class use.
Nitric acid 4 M: Dilute 240 mL of 15 M acid to 1 litre water, for normal class use.
Nitric acid 3 M: Dilute 195 mL of 15.4 M acid to 1 litre of water, (69% nitric acid).
Sulfuric acid 6 M: Dilute 168 mL of 17.8 M acid to 1 litre of water, (95% sulfuric acid).
Sulfuric acid 2 M: Dilute 112 mL of 35 M in 800 mL water, then add water to 1 litre, for normal class use.
Prepare dilute bases
Ammonia solution 4 M: Dilute 220 mL (28% ammonia), 18 M concentrated solution to 1 litre of water, ("ammonium hydroxide").
Ammonia solution 3 M: Dilute 200 mL (28% ammonia), 14.8 M concentrated solution to 1 litre of water.
Ammonia solution 2 M: Dilute 330 mL (10% ammonia), 6 M concentrated solution to 1 litre of water, for normal class use.
Potassium hydroxide 4 M: Dissolve 220 g KOH sticks in water, dilute to 1 litre of water, for normal class use.
Sodium hydroxide 3 M: Dissolve 126 g the sticks, 95%, in water and dilute to 1 litre of water.
Sodium hydroxide 4 M Dissolve 160 g NaOH in 500 mL water, then dilute to 1 litre of water, for normal class use.
Sodium hydroxide 8.5 M Dissolve 330 g NaOH in water, dilute to 1 litre of water, for CO2 absorption.
Prepare solutions:
Saturated solution 1. 1.5 g Ca(OH)2per litre, use some excess, filter off CaCO3, and protect from CO2 of the air.
Saturated solution 2. Add 125 g of slaked lime, Ca(OH)2, to 3 litres of water, shake, allow precipitate to settle, siphon off clear liquid, protect from CO2 in air.
13.0 Prepare salt solutuons
Dissolve amount below, then dilute to 1 L with water.
Aluminium chloride, AlCl3.6H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 24 g of hydrated salt in 1 L water.
Aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3.18H2O, For 0.l M solution, use 66 g of hydrated salt in 1 L water.
Ammonia, NH3(aq) or NH4OH, For 2 M solution, use dilute 330 mL of 10% solution in 1 L water.
Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, For 5 M solution, use 270 g in water.
Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3.3H2O, For 2 M solution, use 300 g in 450 mL 10% NH3, then dilute in 1L water.
Ammonium iron (II) sulfate, For 0.1 M solution, use 39.2 g in water, add 5 mL conc. H2SO4 in 1 L water.
Ammonium oxalate, C2O4(NH4)2.2H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 16 g in 1 L water.
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4, For 0.1 M solution, use 13.2 g in 1 L water.
Barium chloride, BaCl2.2H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 24.4 g in 1 L water.
Bismuth chloride, BICl3, For 0.17 M solution, use 53 g in 1 litre of dilute HCl, 1 part conc. HCl to 5 parts water.
Bismuth nitrate, Bi(NO3)3.5H2O, For 0.083 M solution, use 40 g in 1 litre of dilute HNO3, 1 part conc. HNO3 to 5 parts water.
Calcium chloride, CaCl2 anhydrous 0.l M solution, use 11 g in1 L water.
Calcium chloride, CaCl2.2H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 14.7 g in 1 L water.
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, limewater, 10 g in 1 L water, shake, allow it to settle, decant clear liquid.
Calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2, For 0.1 M solution, use 16.4 g in 1 L water.
Calcium sulfate, CaSO4.2H2O, For 0.1 M solution, shake 10 g in 1 L water, leave to stand, decant the clear liquid.
Cobalt (II) chloride-6-water, CoCl2.6H2O, For 0.1M solution, use 23.8 g in 1 L water.
Cobalt nitrate, Co(NO3)2.6H2O, For 0.1M solution, use 29 g in 1 L water.
Copper (II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2.6H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 29.6 g in 1 L water.
Copper (II) sulfate, CuSO4.5H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 25 g in 1 L water + 5 mL conc. H2SO4.
Iron (II) ammonium sulfate, Fe(NH4SO4)2.6H2O, For 0.5 M solution, use 196 g in 1 L water + 10 mL conc. H2SO4, dilute to 1 litre.
Iron (III) chloride, FeCl3.6H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 27 g in 1 L water + 20 mL HCl.
Iron (III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3.9H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 40.4 g in 1 L water.
Iron (II) sulfate, FeSO4.7H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 27.8 g in 1 L water + 1 mL conc. H2SO4 to clear.
Iron (III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 56 g in 1 L water.
Lead ethanoate (CH3COO)2Pb.3H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 38 g in 1 L water + dilute ethanoic acid to clear.
Lead nitrate, Pb(N03)2, For 0.1 M solution, use 33 g in 1 L water.
Magnesium chloride, MgCl2.6H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 20.3 g in 1 L water.
Magnesium nitrate, Mg(N03)2.6H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 25.6 g in 1 L water.
Magnesium sulfate, MgSO4.7H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 24.7 g in 1 L water.
Manganese sulfate, MnSO4.H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 16.9 g in water.
Nickel chloride, NiCl2.6H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 24 g in 1 L water.
Potassium bromide, KBr, For 0.1 M solution, use 12 g in 1 L water.
Potassium carbonate, K2CO3, For 0.1 M solution, use 13.8 g in water.
Potassium chloride, KCl, For 0.1 M solution, use 7.5 g in 1 L water.
Potassium dichromate, For 0.1 M solution, use 29.4 g in 1 L water (K2Cr2O7).
Potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate, For 0.1 M solution, use 13.6 g in 1Lwater (KH2PO4).
Potassium hydroxide, KOH, For 2 M solution, use 110 g of KOH sticks in 1 L water.
Potassium iodide, KI, For 0.1 M solution, use 16.6 g in 1 L water.
Potassium nitrate, KNO3, For 0.1 M solution, use 10.l g in 1 L water.
Potassium permanganate, KMnO4, For 0.1 M solution, use 15.8 g in 1 L water.
Potassium sulfate, K2SO4, For 0.1 M solution, use 17.4 g in 1 L water.
Silver nitrate, AgNO3, For 0.1 M solution, use 17 g in 1 L water.
Sodium borate, Na2B4O7.l0H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 38 g in 1 L water.
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.10H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 28.6 g in 1 L water.
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 (anhydrous), For 0.1 M solution, use 10.6 g in 1 L water.
Sodium chloride, NaCl, For 0.1 M solution, use 5.8 g in 1 L water.
Sodium chromate, Na2CrO4.4H2O, For 0.1M solution, use 23.4g in 1 L water.
Sodium dichromate, Na2Cr2O7.2H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 29.8 g in 1 L water.
Sodium ethanoate, CH3COONa.3H2O, For 00.1 M solution, use 13.6 g in 1 L water (sodium acetate).
Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3, For 0.1 M solution, use 8.4 g in 1 L water.
Sodium iodide, NaI, For 0.1 M solution, use 15 g in 1 L water.
Sodium molybdate, Na2MoO4.2H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 24.2 g in 1 L water.
Sodium nitrate, NaNO3, For 0.1 M solution, use 8.5 g in 1 L water.
Sodium nitrite, NaNO2, For 0.1 M solution, use 7 g in 1 L water.
Sodium oxalate, Na2C2O4, For 0.1 M solution, use 13.4 g in 1 L water.
Sodium sulfate, Na2SO4.10H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 32.2 g in 1 L water.
Sodium sulfide, Na2S.9H2O, For 0.5 M solution, use 120 g in 1L water.
Sodium sulfite, Na2SO3.6H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 23.4 g in 1 L water.
Sodium sulfite, Na2SO3 (anhydrous), For 0.1 M solution, use 12.6 g in 1 L water.
Sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3.5H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 24.8 g in 1 L water.
Strontium (II) chloride, SrCl2.6H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 26.7 g in 1 L water.
tri-Sodium phosphate, Na3PO4.12H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 38 g in 1 L water.
Tin (II) chloride, SnCl2.2H2O, For 0.5 M solution, use 113 g in 170 mL conc. HCl, dilute to 1 L + add tin foil.
Tin (IV) chloride, SnCl2.5H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 35 g in 1 L water.
Zinc sulfate, ZnSO4.7H2O, For 0.1 M solution, use 28.8 g in 1 L water.
14.0 Prepare reagents
("in water" = "dissolve in 1 litre of distilled water")
Substance, formula Concentration M, dissolve amount below then dilute to 1 litre with water.
Aluminium chloride, AlCl3.6H2O 0.1 M, 24 g of hydrated salt in water
Aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3.18H2O 0.l M, 66 g of hydrated salt in water
Ammonia, NH3(aq) or NH4OH 2 M, dilute 330 mL of 10% soln.
Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl 5 M, 270 g in water
Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3.3H2O 2 M, 300 g in 450 mL 10% NH3, then dilute
Ammonium iron (II) sulfate 0.1 M, 39.2 g in water, add 5 mL conc. H2SO4
Ammonium oxalate, C2O4(NH4)2.2H2O 0.1 M, 16 g in water
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 0.1 M, 13.2 g in water
Barium chloride, BaCl2.2H2O 0.1 M, 24.4 g in water
Bismuth chloride, BiCl3
 0.17 M, 53 g in 1 litre of dilute HCl, 1 part conc. HCl to 5 parts water
Bismuth nitrate, Bi(NO3)3.5H2O 0.083 M, 40 g in 1 litre of dilute HNO3, 1 part conc. HNO3 to 5 parts water
Calcium chloride, CaCl2, anhydrous 0.l M, 11 g in water
Calcium chloride, CaCl2.2H2O 0.1 M, 14.7 g
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 limewater, 10 g in water, shake, allow it to settle, decant clear liquid
Calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2 0.1 M, 16.4 g in water
Calcium sulfate, CaSO4.2H2O 0.1 M, Shake 10 g in water, leave to stand, decant the clear liquid
Cobalt (II) chloride-6-water, CoCl2.6H2O 0.1 M, 23.8 g in water
Cobalt nitrate, Co(NO3)2.6H2O 0.1 M, 29 g in water
Copper (II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2.6H2O
 0.1 M, 29.6 g in water
Copper (II) sulfate, CuSO4.5H2O
 0.1 M, 25 g in water + 5 mL conc. sulfuric acid
Copper (II) sulfate, CuSO4.5H2O 0.5 M, 124.8 g in water + 5 mL of conc. sulfuric acid
Iron (II) ammonium sulfate, Fe(NH4SO4)2.6H2O 0.5 M, 196 g in water + 10 mL conc. H2SO4, dilute to 1 litre
Iron (III) chloride, FeCl3.6H2O
 0.1 M, 27 g in water + 20 mL hydrochloric acid
Iron (III) chloride, FeCl3.6H2O 0.5 M, 135.2 g in water + 20 mL conc. HCl, dilute to 1 litre
Iron (III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3.9H2O 0.1 M, 40.4 g in water
Iron (II) sulfate, FeSO4.7H2O
 0.1 M, 27.8 g in water + 1 mL conc. H2SO4 to clear
Iron (II) sulfate 0.5 M, 139 g in water + 10 mL conc. H2SO4, dilute to 1 litre
Iron (III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O
 0.1 M, 56 g in water
Iron (III) sulfate 0.25 M, 140.5 g in water + 100 mL conc.H2SO4, dilute to 1 litre.
Lead ethanoate (CH3COO)2Pb.3H2O 0.1 M, 38 g in water + dilute ethanoic acid to clear
Lead nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 0.1 M, 33 g in water
Magnesium chloride, MgCl2.6H2O 0.1 M, 20.3 g in water
Magnesium nitrate, Mg(N03)2.6H2O 0.1 M, 25.6 g in water
Magnesium sulfate, MgSO4.7H2O 0.1 M, 24.7 g in water
Manganese sulfate, MnSO4.H2O 0.1 M, 16.9 g in water
Nickel chloride, NiCl2.6H2O 0.1 M, 24 g in water
Potassium bromide, KBr 0.1 M, 12 g in water
Potassium carbonate, K2CO3 0.1 M, 13.8 g in water
Potassium chloride, KCl 0.1 M, 7.5 g in water
Potassium dichromate 0.1 M, 29.4 g in water (K2Cr2O7)
Potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate 0.1 M, 13.6 g in water (KH2PO4)
Potassium hydroxide, KOH 2 M, 112 g in water. Use gloves.
Potassium hydroxide, KOH 2 M, 110 g of KOH sticks
Potassium iodide, KI 0.1 M, 16.6 g in water
Potassium nitrate, KNO3 0.1 M, 10.l g in water
Potassium permanganate, KMnO4 0.1 M, 15.8 g in water
Potassium sulfate, K2SO4 0.1 M, 17.4 g in water
Silver nitrate, AgNO3 0.1 M, 17 g in water
Sodium borate, Na2B4O7.l0H2O 0.1 M, 38 g in water
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.10H2O 0.1 M, 28.6 g in water
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, (anhydrous) 0.1 M, 10.6 g in water
Sodium chloride, NaCl 0.1 M, 5.8 g in water
Sodium chromate, Na2CrO4.4H2O 0.1 M, 23.4g in water
Sodium dichromate, Na2Cr207.2H2O 0.1 M, 29.8 g in water
Sodium ethanoate, CH3COONa.3H2O 00.1 M, 13.6 g in water (sodium acetate)
Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3 0.1 M, 8.4 g in water
Sodium iodide, NaI 0.1 M, 15 g in water
Sodium molybdate, Na2MoO4.2H2O 0.1 M, 24.2 g in water
Sodium nitrate, NaNO3 0.1 M, 8.5 g in water
Sodium nitrite, NaNO2 0.1 M, 7 g in water
Sodium oxalate, Na2C2O4 0.1 M, 13.4 g in water
Sodium sulfate, Na2SO4.10H2O
 0.1 M, 32.2 g in water
Sodium sulfide, Na2S.9H2O 0.5 M 120 g in water and dilute to 1 litre
Sodium sulfite, Na2SO3.6H2O 0.1 M, 23.4 g in water
Sodium sulfite, Na2SO3 (anhydrous) 0.1 M, 12.6 g in water
Sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3.5H2O 0.1 M, 24.8 g in water
Strontium (II) chloride, SrCl2.6H2O 0.1 M, 26.7 g in water
tri-Sodium phosphate, Na3PO4.12H2O 0.1 M, 38 g in water
Tin (II) chloride, SnCl2.2H2O
 0.5 M, 113 g in 170 mL conc. HCl, dilute to 1 litre + tin foil
Tin (IV) chloride, SnCl2.5H2O 0.1 M, 35 g in water
Zinc sulfate, ZnSO4.7H2O 0.1 M, 28.8 g in water
5.4.0 Prepare known concentration solutions
Experiments
5.4.1 Ammonium molybdate
5.4.2 Calcium hydroxide, limewater
5.4.3 Dipotassium hydrogen orthophosphate
5.4.4 di-Sodium hydrogen phosphate
5.4.5 Ethanoic acid (acetic Acid)
5.4.6 Hydrochloric acid
5.4.7 Hydrogen peroxide
5.4.14 Oxalic acid (ethanedioic acid)
5.4.15 Phenolphthalein indicator
5.4.16 Sodium chlorate (V)
5.4.17 Sodium dihydrogen phosphate
5.4.9 Sodium hydrosulfite
5.4.10 Sodium hydroxide
5.4.11 Starch solution
5.4.12 Sulfuric acid
5.4.18 Tin (II) chloride
5.4.1 Ammonium molybdate (NH4)6Mo7O24.4H2O Add 45 g to water containing 120 mL 10% ammonia.
Add 120 g NH4NO3 then dilute.
5.4.2 Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Saturated (limewater ) Ca(OH)2		 Add 10 g to water, shake, let settle, then decant clear liquid.
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)20.02 M Add 1.48 g to water, add excess, filter off precipitate.
5.4.3 Dipotassium hydrogen orthophosphate, K2HPO4 0.1 M Add 17.4 g to water.
.
5.4.4 di-Sodium hydrogen phosphate, Na2HPO4.l2H2O 0.1 M Add 35.8 g of Na2HPO4.l2H2O to water.
.
Na2HPO4.2H2O 0.1M Add 17.8 g Na2HPO4.2H2O to water.
5.4.5 Ethanoic Acid, (AceticAcid,) CH3COOH 17M Use as supplied.
.
Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid) CH3COOH 2 M (approx.) Dilute 120 mL concentrated (glacial) or use 360 mL 33% acid.
Ethanoic Acid (Acetic acid) CH3COOH 2 M Dissolve 117 mL of 17.15 M acid (99% w / w 1.048 g / mL).
5.4.6 Hydrochloric Acid HCl concentrated 10 M Use as supplied.
.
Hydrochloric acid HC 2 M Dissolve 173 mL of 11.55 M acid (36% w / w 1.17 g / mL).
5.4.7 Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
For laboratory use only.		 To 20 volume solutions (6%) add twice the volume of water.
5.4.9 Sodium hydrosulfite Na2S2O4.2H2O
.
 100 mL solution for use as oxygen gas absorber, 16 g Na2S2O4.2H2O + 13 g NaOH to 100 mL water, + 4 g B-anthraquinone sulfonate to improve reagent.
5.4.10 Sodium hydroxide NaOH Approximately 2M
.
 Add 80 g to water and leave to cool.
Store in a bottle with a rubber stopper.
Use safety glasses and nitrile chemical-resistant gloves.
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
2 M
.
 Add 81.6 g (98% NaOH) to water and leave to cool.
Store in a bottle with rubber stopper.
Use safety glasses and nitrile chemical-resistant gloves.
Sodium hydroxide (for CO2 absorption) Add 330 g to water.
5.4.11 Starch solution,
1%
.
 Add 10 g starch to cold water to make a paste.
Then dilute to 100 mL with boiling water.
Let it boil, stir then leave to stand.
5.4.12 Sulfuric acid concentrated H2SO4 18 M Use as supplied.
.
Sulfuric acid
2 M
.
 Add 113 mL of 17.75 M acid (97% w/w 1.83 g / mL) slowly to water with stirring.
Use safety glasses and nitrile chemical-resistant gloves.
5.4.14 Oxalic acid (COOH)2.2H2O 0.1 M Add 12.6 g of crystals to water.
.
5.4.15 Phenolphthalein indicator Add 5 g to 500 mL of ethanol, add 500 mL water, then stir.
5.4.16 Sodium chlorate (V) NaClO3
0.1 M		 Dilute 10% solution with equal volume water.
.
5.4.17 Sodium dihydrogen phosphate NaH2PO4.2H2O 0.1 M Add 15.6 g to water
.
5.4.18 Tin (II) chloride SnCl2.2H2O
0.1 M		 Add 22.6 g to 100 mL conc. HCl, dilute with water.
Add pieces of tin.
12.0 Prepare serial dilutions
100% solution: Prepare 100 mL of saturated solution, then filter.
0.5% solution: 0.5 mL of saturated solution, add water to 100 mL.
0.1% solution: 20 mL of 0.5% solution, add water to 100 mL.
0.05% solution: 50 mL of 0.1% solution, add water to 100 mL.
0.01% solution: 20 mL of 0.05% solution, add water to 100 mL.
0.005% solution: 50 mL of 0.01% solution, add water to 100 mL.
0.001% solution: 20 mL of 0.005% solution, add water to 100 mL.
12.6.0 Prepare salts
A salt compound is formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal ions or ammonium ions.
A salt compound is formed by the combination of an acid radical or positive ions with a basic radical or negative ion.
A salt compound is formed by the replacement of all or part of the hydrogen in an acid by a metallic element.
12.6.1 Prepare salts by neutralization of a soluble acid and a base
12.6.2 Prepare salts by acids + metals
12.6.6 Prepare salts by precipitation reactions
12.6.7 Prepare salts by direct union of elements
12.6.8 Prepare salts by bases + non-metallic oxides
12.6.9 Prepare salts by acids + salts
12.6.10 Prepare salts by chemical reactions
12.6.1 Prepare salts by neutralization of a soluble acid and a base
Acid-base neutralization: Acid + Base (Alkali) --> Salt + Water
H + (aq) + OH - (aq) --> H 2 O.
12.6.2 Prepare salts by acids + metals
Acid + metal --> salt + hydrogen gas
(Metals that displace hydrogen from an acid may be called "active metals", e.g. Zn, Fe)
12.6.6 Prepare salts by precipitation reactions
Precipitation reactions, double decomposition reactions, double displacement reactions
Mixing two soluble compounds to prepare an insoluble salt.
Solution 1 + Solution 2 --> Insoluble solid 3 + Solution 4
12.6.7 Prepare salts by direct union of elements
Direct union of elements to form compounds: 8.0.0
12.6.8 Prepare salts by bases + non-metallic oxides
12.17.3.1 Carbon dioxide with sodium hydroxide solution
CO2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) --> Na2CO3 (aq)+ H2O (l)
12.6.9 Prepare salts by acids + salts
sulfuric acid + sodium chloride --> sodium sulfate
H2SO4 (aq) + NaCl (s) --> NaHSO4 (s) + HCl (g)
H2SO4 (aq) + MgCl2 (s) --> Mg(HSO4)2(s) + HCl (g)
12.6.10 Prepare salts by chemical reactions
Salts can be prepared by the action of acids with alkalis, carbonates, metals, metal oxides, and by replacement and double decomposition reactions.
A salt contains a metal and part of an acid, e.g. copper sulfate from sulfuric acid, sodium chloride from hydrochloric acid.
A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal.
For example, when zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid it replaces the hydrogen and forms the salt, zinc chloride.
The hydrogen comes away as hydrogen gas.
Zn + 2HCl --> ZnCl2 + H2.
Experiments
1. Add silver nitrate solution to sodium chloride solution.
A silver chloride precipitate forms that can be separated from the sodium nitrate solution.
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) --> AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
silver nitrate + sodium chloride --> silver chloride + sodium nitrate
Be careful! Silver nitrate is expensive!
2. Add silver nitrate solution to potassium chloride solution.
A silver chloride precipitate forms that can be separated from the potassium chloride solution.
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) --> KNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)
silver nitrate + potassium chloride --> silver chloride + potassium nitrate
Be careful! Silver nitrate is expensive!