Know how to improve your school agriculture projects

School Science Lessons
2025-08-24

School Agriculture Projects
(ProjSchool)
Contents
5.1.0 Citrus
5.2.0 Herbs
5.3.0 Herbal tinctures
5.4.0 Peanuts, groundnuts
5.5.0 Sprouts and microgreens
5.6.0 "Mothers" in the plant nursery, by Sandra Nanka
5.7.0 Hybrids, The First hybrid

5.1.0 Citrus
Tips for growing citrus, by Sandra Nanka
Citrus do best in a sunny position, this ensures good fruit production.
Soil should be well-drained, the roots should not sit in water.
If more than one tree is planted allow 2 to 3 m minimum between trees.
Add compost to the soil to add body to sandy soils and break up clay soils.
Dig a hole twice the size of the root ball.
Pop the tree while it is still in its bag/pot into a container of water with seaweed solution.
Remove the tree from the pot and place it in the hole.
Fill with soil leaving no air pockets and water in well.
Mulch around the tree to help keep moisture in and the area close to the tree weed and grass free.
Fertilise during early spring, summer and autumn.
Spread the fertiliser just within the drip line.
Use organic extra or aged poultry manure.
Avoid fertilising while they are in flower, because it can cause the fruit to drop.
Water twice a week for the first month after planting, then once a week or fortnight for the first year.
When the trees are established, only water during dry periods and when fruits are developing.
Soil types will determine the frequency of watering, sandy soils will require more water than clay soils.
Prune lightly once a year after fruiting.
Remove old or dead wood and any unwanted growth or branches touching the soil.
Prune to maintain the height and shape you are after.
Always prune any shoots/suckers that are growing around or below the bud union or graft.
Remove flowers from the tree for at least the first year to let the energy go into making a strong tree.
Leaf miner and scale insects can be controlled with Eco oil.
To control gall wasp, cut off any swollen branches and burn or bag the affected branches.
Dwarf Citrus are regular citrus varieties grafted onto smaller tree rootstock, usually Flying Dragon Rootstock.
The 'flying dragon' rootstock is root disease resistant as well as cold tolerant.
Dwarf citrus will grow between 1.5 m to 2 m.
The fruit is the same size and quality as regular fruit trees.
They are ideal for small gardens, courtyards, decks or balconies.

>Citrus (Citrus species)
Citrus, Genus names, C, (Citrus species)
Australian blood lime, (Citrus australasica var. sanguinea x 'Ellendale Mandarin' hybrid)
Australian desert lime, (Citrus glauca)
Bergamot orange, (Citrus bergamia), bitter orange tree, Bergamot sour orange
Bitter orange, (Citrus aurantium var. amara), (pomelo x mandarin), sour orange, Seville orange, bigarade orange, marmalade orange
Blood lime, (Citrus australasica var. sanguinea x other species)
Blood orange, (Citrus x sinsis) Calamansi, (Citrus x citrofortunella mitis (kumquat x mandarin orange)
Calamodin, (Citrus x microcarpa)
Chinotto, (Citrus myrtifolia), myrtle-leaved orange tree
Citron, (Citrus medica), cedrat
Clementine, (Citrus x clementina), (mandarin x sweet orange)
Desert lime, (Citrus glauca) Finger lime, (Citrus australasica), Australian finger lime, native finger lime
Ginger lime, (Citrus assamensis) Grapefruit, (Citrus x paradisi)
Kaffir lime, (Citrus hystrix), makrut lime, kieffer lime
Kakadu lime, (Citrus gracilis), Humpty Doo Lime
Key lime, (Citrus x aurantifolia), (hybrid: C. hystrix × C. medica), sour lime, acid lime, Mexican lime
Kumquat, (Citrus japonica), cumquat, round cumquat
Lemon, (Citrus limon)
Lemonade tree, (Citrus limon x reticulata), (mandarin orange x lemon)
Lime: Australian blood lime, Australian finger lime, Desert lime, Kaffir lime, Key lime, Tahitian lime
Mango lime, (Citrus ichangensis), Rutaceae
Mandarin orange, (Citrus reticulata), chen pi
Meyer lemon, (Citrus x myeri)
Mount White lime, (Citrus garrawayi)
Myrtle-leaved orange tree, (Citrus myrtifolia)
Navel orange, (Citrus x sinensis), Cara cara navel orange, (Citrus x sinensis, Cultivar 'Cara Cara')
Pomelo, (Citrus maxima), shaddock, pummelo
Rangpur lime, (Citrus x limona), Mandarin lime, Canton lemon
Red finger lime, (Citrus australasica var. sanguinea)
Rough lemon, (Citrus jambhiri)
Round lime, (Citrus australis), Australian round lime, native lime, Australian lime
Russel River lime, (Citrus inodora)
Satsuma mandarin, (Citrus reticulata subsp. unshiu), unshu orange
Sour orange, (Citrus x aurantium subsp. amara), bitter orange, Seville orange
Sudachi, (Citrus sudachi)
Sweet lime, (Citrus limetta), sweet lemon, sweet limetta, Italian lime
Sweet orange, (Citrus x sinensis), "orange"
Satsuma, (Citrus unshiu) Sudachi, (Citrus sudachi) Tahitian lime, (Citrus x latifolia), Persian lime, Bearss lime
Tangerine, (Citrus tangerina)
Tangor, (Citrus reticulata x sinensis), (mandarin x orange), temple orange
Tangelo, (Citrus x tangelo, Citrus reticulata x C. paradisi), honeybells, tangors
Valencia, (Citrus sinensis)

Citrus species
Sour orange, (Citrus x aurantium subsp. amara), bitter orange, Seville orange, evergreen, fast growing, medium tree, fruit, large, sour, | Neroli oil | from flowers and | Bergamottin | from fruit, bigarade oil, orange flower oil, petitgrain orange oil, orange flower water used to flavour sweets in Middle East | Citral | Neohesperidin | Limonene | used as juice, marmalade, propagation from seeds, air-layering, cuttings, used as rootstock for other citrus varieties, South Asia, Rutaceae.
Rootstock is used for grafting lemons.
Key lime, (Citrus x aurantifolia), (hybrid: C. hystrix × C. medica), sour lime, acid lime, Mexican lime.
West Indian lime, bartender's lime, small tree, fruit has many seeds, small to medium yellow when mature, very sour | Citral | Limonene | aromatic, used juice, pie, budding, air-layering, propagation from seeds, cuttings, for home planting, Southeast Asia, Rutaceae.
Dried herb sold as lime peel.
Lime
The fruit called "lime" include Key lime (Citrus aurantiifolia), Tahitian lime, (Citrus x latifolia), Kaffir lime, (Citrus hystrix), Australian finger lime (Citrus australasica), Australian blood lime (Citrus australasica var. sanguinea x 'Ellendale Mandarin' hybrid), and Desert lime, (Citrus glauca).

Australian finger lime, (Citrus australasica), native finger lime, understorey rainforest tree, cylindrical fruit, pickle-shaped fruit about 2 cm in diameter and 10 cm long, that can be sliced into rings and preserved, very acrid pulp has a harsh aftertaste, acidic juice, distinct aroma, used in marmalades, chutneys, sauces, drinks, Australian native food, Rutaceae.
Australian Citrus species are very vigorous and good candidates as rootstock for citrus grown in arid lands.
The native Citrus species are notably different from all other species of citrus, suggesting an isolated and diverging evolution.
As ornamentals they have great vigour and unusual fruit and foliage.
They represent citrus relatives adapted to unusual soil conditions, extreme drought or rainforest conditions.
Commercial varieties of Australian finger limes, e.g. 'Champagne', are seedless and high quality.
Microcitrus australasica, Finger Lime, Byron Sunrise variety, slightly less tart than other finger lime varieties.
See diagram: Finger lime.
Citrus australasica, Australian Finger Lime, Daleys Fruit Trees
Finger lime, powder, Mudbrick Herb Cottage.
Finger limes, DPI, NSW
Citrus australasica, Tucker Bush

Red finger lime, (Citrus australasica var. sanguinea), long, tasty fruit, up to 8cm long, can be sliced into rings like cartwheels, grows 3-6 metres, grows in full sun and part shade, prickly so planted together for a living fence, fire retardant, frost hardy, slow growing, but fast growing when budded onto citrus, tolerates freely-drained poor soils, SE Queensland, Australian native food, Rutaceae.

Australian blood lime, (Citrus australasica var. sanguinea x 'Ellendale Mandarin' hybrid)

Blood lime, (Citrus australasica var. sanguinea x other species), Australian native food, Rutaceae
The term "lime" may refer to Citrus species or other species, e.g. the lime tree, linden, is Tilia species.
Limes have high concentration of citric acid and are the most acid of the citrus fruits.
Citrus sinensis, Blood Orange, Daleys Fruit Trees

Australian round lime, (Citrus australis), native lime, Australian lime, round lime, gympie lime, dooft, dooja, tree up to 20 m, spherical / pear-shaped fruit, size of a large walnut, up to 50 mm diameter, thick green or yellow skin, pale green pulp, flavour is lemon-like with a harsh aftertaste, Australian native food, Rutaceae.
Microcitrus australis, Australian Round Lime, Daleys Fruit Trees

Bergamot orange, (Citrus bergamia, Citrus x aurantium subsp. bergamia), bitter orange tree, Bergamot sour orange, (Bergamo, Italian city), perennial, inside pear-shaped fruit is yellow, flavone glycosides, cultivated mainly in Calabria only for green fragrant essence, called bergamot essential oil prepared from rind by pressure, bergamot orange in Earl Grey tea, and Bergamot marmalade | Bergapten | Limonene | herbal medicine, in Turkish delight, Italy, Canary Islands, Rutaceae.
Dried bergamot orange is sold as bergamot orange peel.
Citrus aurantium ssp bergamia, Bergamot orange, Daleys Fruit Trees
Bergamot, essential oil

Clementine, (Citrus x clementina), hybrid between mandarin and sweet orange, Mediterranean, Rutaceae

Mount White lime, (Citrus garrawayi), understorey tree in tropical rainforest, up to 15 m, edible fruit, green-yellow elongated fruit, cooked or eaten raw, Australian native food, Rutaceae
Microcitrus garrawayae, Mount White lime, Daleys Fruit Trees

Australian desert lime, (Citrus glauca), desert lime, small tree to 12 m high, greyish green, prominent oil glands, yellowish green berry, xerophyte, grows in dry areas and dropping its leaves under the stress of drought.
In the summer it bears heavy crops of rounded yellow fruits 1 to 2 cm broad.
Its rind is soft and less bitter than most members of the citrus group, the fruit makes excellent marmalade.
Australian native food, Rutaceae

Kakadu lime, (Citrus gracilis), Humpty Doo Lime, shrub, small leaves, corky bark, globose fruit up to 10 cm diameter, savannah woodlands, Australian native food, Northern Territory, Rutaceae
Citrus limon, Dwarf lemon, Daleys Fruit Trees
Citrus limon, Verna lemon, Daleys Fruit Trees
See diagram: Bush lemon, Citrus jambhin.
Citrus limon, Lisbon lemon
Dried herb is sold as lemon peel.
Citrus limon, Lisbon lemon, Daleys Fruit Trees

Kaffir lime, (Citrus hystrix), makrut lime, kieffer lime, "Mauritius papeda", perennial, up to 5 m, rough green peel lime-like aroma, very aromatic tough lemon-scented leaves, valued in Thai and Indonesian cooking to flavour rice, meat dishes, curries, soups, as finely-chopped garnish, small fruit eaten, leaves in rinse for hair, culinary uses | Citral | Citronellal | Limonene | Pinene | herbal medicine, Rutaceae.

Russel River lime, (Citrus inodora, Microcitrus inodora), large leaf Australian wild lime. egg-shaped yellow-green fruit, odourless leaves and flowers, no aromatic oils, lowland tropical rainforest., fruit of good flavour, no commercial use, northern Queensland, Australia.
Rough lemon, (Citrus jambhiri), cultivars are used as rootstocks, Rutaceae.

Kumquat, (Citrus japonica), cumquat, round cumquat, small orange-like fruit, 2.5.cm diameter, "lucky" Chinese pot plant, some varieties bitter so are used for marmalades, other varieties eaten whole including skin, preserved in syrup, candied | Monoterpenes | Favanone glycosides | Southeast Asia, Rutaceae.

Tahitian lime, (Citrus x latifolia), Persian lime, Bearss lime, small tree, fruit medium green, very sour, | Citral | aromatic, used juice, processed products, budding, air-layering, cuttings, Rutaceae

Lemon, (Citrus x limon), small tree, evergreen, fast growing, fruit, small to large, some rough skin, sour, used juice, flavouring, propagation from budding, air-layering, cuttings | Limonene | Pinene | South Asia, Rutaceae.
See diagram: Lemon.
19.4.2.3 Lemon juice stain remover.
Lemon juice contains ascorbic acids acidic, and the stain or smell may be soluble in it.
If the stain is reduced by ascorbic acid to a substance that is not coloured, the lemon juice bleaches the stain.
The skin of lemons contains oils, e.g. lemon oil, and the stain may be soluble in the oil.
Most stains are caused by organic chemicals that are more soluble in the organic compounds in lemon juice then in water.
Lemon juice may convert the stains into substances that are more soluble in water or the lemon juice.

Lemonade tree, (Citrus limon x reticulata), (hybrid between a mandarin orange and a lemon), up to 5 m, round fruit, up to 10 cm diameter, smooth yellow rind, peeled like a mandarin, lemon-like taste, no seeds, very spiny plant!, New Zealand, Australia, United States, Rutaceae

Sweet lime, (Citrus limetta), sweet lemon, sweet limetta, Italian lime, limette oil, Southeast Asia, Rutaceae

Pomelo, (Citrus maxima), shaddock, pummelo, medium tree, evergreen, large fast-growing fruit, thick skin, large pink or yellow juice vesicles, used fresh, peel candied, propagation from budding, South Asia, Rutaceae.

Citron, (Citrus medica), cedrat, large fragrant fruit, very aromatic thick rind, can be zested, little juice, candied, pickles, ancient citrus species | Limonene | Pinene | Himalayan region, Rutaceae.

Calamansi, (Citrus x microcarpa), (hybrid between kumquat and mandarin orange), (variety "Philippine Lime"), calamondin, dwarf kumquat hybrid, musk lime, acid orange, calamondin orange, Panama orange, small tree, evergreen, fruit, small, round orange, very sour fruit, used in traditional Filipino cuisine, (used as juice, preserves, marmalade), propagation from budding, common ornamental in China, Philippines, Indonesia, Southeast Asia, Rutaceae.
Citrus madurensis, Calamansi, Daleys Fruit Trees

Calamodin, (Citrus x microcarpa), small golden fruit, is used for marmadades and preserves.

Meyer lemon, (Citrus x myeri) | Limonene | Pinene | Thymol | ornamental, China, Rutaceae
It is a natural hybrid, discovered in China in 1908 by Frank Meyer, an employee of the United States Agriculture Department.
See diagram: Citrus x myeri, Myer lemon.

Myrtle-leaved orange tree, (Citrus myrtifolia), sour orange, thornless, flavouring in "Chinotto" and "Campari", small compact orange tree. grown in pots, Rutaceae.

Grapefruit, (Citrus x paradisi), medium to large tree, fast growing, fruit, large, yellow, subacid, used fresh, juice, propagation from budding | CPY3A4 | Limonene | Pinene | bitter taste from | Naringin | West Indies, Rutaceae
Red variety contains | Lycopene |.
Citrus x paradisi, Grapefruit, Daleys Fruit Trees
https://www.herbcottage.com.au/products/grapefruit-pink-essential-oil">grapefruit, essential oil

Mandarin orange, (Citrus reticulata), chen pi, mandarin small tree, small, flat, red, sweet fruit easy to peel, but fragile, distinctive aroma of | Thymol | also: Limonene | Pinene | Rutaceae
Dried herb is sold as peel.

Rangpur lime, (Citrus reticulata x medica, Citrus x limonia), (lemon x mandarin), juicy, easy to peel

Tangor, (Citrus reticulata x sinensis), (mandarin-orange cross), temple orange, temple tangor, king orange, medium tree, evergreen, fruit very sweet, large, rough skin, juice used fresh, propagation from budding, Southeast Asia, Rutaceae
Satsuma mandarin, (Citrus reticulata subsp. unshiu), unshu orange, cold hardy mandarin, seedless, easy to peel, Japan, Rutaceae

Sweet orange, (Citrus x sinensis), "orange", Citrus aurantium, hybrid between pomelo (Citrus maxima) and mandarin (Citrus reticulata), commonly cultivated species of orange that includes Valencia oranges, blood oranges and navel oranges.
Sweet Orange Group, sweet oranges, blood oranges, navel oranges, orange blossom oil, orange peel | Limonene | Synephrine | Pinene | southern China, Turkey, Ghana, South Africa, Rutaceae
See diagram: Sweet orange fruit, transverse section.
(Essential oils: neroli oil from flowers, petitgrain oil from leaves, orange oil from peel, also pectin from peel.)
Dried herb is sold as sweet orange peel and sweet orange peel fine cut, up to 3 mm, powder, and fruit segments.

Navel orange has second row of carpels, the "navel", at the fruit apex, no seeds, but standing juice may turn bitter with formation of | Limonine |.
Blood oranges have red pulp containing | Anthocyanin | pigments.
Use oranges, studded with cloves, as pomanders to remove musty smells from wardrobes.
Citrus sinensis, Daleys Fruit Trees

Cara cara navel orange, (Citrus x sinensis, Cultivar 'Cara Cara')
Cara cara navel orange is round to slightly oval, thick rind, bright orange colour, with spongy white pith under the rind.
Seedless juicy pink flesh with a sweet flavour and little acidity.
Used for juicing and eaten raw.
It is said to be a hybrid of the Brazilian Bahia orange and the Washington navel.

Valencia, (Citrus sinensis), thin-skinned juicing orange, fruit can be left on the tree for up to 6 months, bred in southern California,, USA, Rutaceae

Sudachi, (Citrus sudachi), is a small, round, cross-breed green citrus fruit, used as food flavouring in place of lemon or lime.
Cultivated in Japan, called Yuzu (Citrus junos), where eaten with matsutake mushroom.
Sudachi is used as a vinegar, caalled ponzu, "pon vinegar".

Tangelo, (Citrus x tangelo, Citrus reticulata x C. paradisi), honeybells, tangors, medium tree, evergreen, fast growing, hybrid of tangerine and grapefruit, juicy, tart taste, easy to peel, "nipple" at the stem large fruit, used fresh or juice, propagation from budding, Florida, West Indies, Rutaceae.

Tangerine, (Citrus tangerina), (possibly a type of mandarin orange), small to medium tree, fruit, round, sweet, loose-skinned, used fresh, unshu orange, soft sweet fruit, juice, rootstock, budding, propagation from seeds, possibly from Tangier | Limonene | South Asia, Rutaceae

Trifoliate orange, (Citrus trifoliata), Japanese bitter orange, small tree, large thorns on roots, with trifoliate, deciduous leaves, globose fruit, used as rootstock and to develop hybrids, fruits too bitter to eat, but used in marmalade, ornamental, China, Rutaceae

5.2.0 Herbs
5.2.1 Chinese five spice powder
5.2.2 Flooded herb garden
5.2.3 "Herb Gardens", with Annette McFarlane
5.2.4 Herb growing basic tips, from Queensland Herb Society
5.2.5 Herbal sprinkles
5.2.6 Herbal vinegar, by Sandra Nanka
5.2.7 Herbs for schools, by Sandra Nanka

5.4.0 Peanuts, groundnuts
Peanut, (Arachis hypogaea), groundnut, (it is a legume and not a "nut"!), herbaceous, annual, needs light sandy-loam acidic soil, five months of warm weather, regular moisture, pods ready for harvest 120 to 150 days after seeds planted, pods unripe if harvested too early, pods snap off stalk and stay in soil if harvest too late, long-chain fatty acid | Arachidic acid, C20H32O2 | Dihydroxychromone, C9H6O4 | Peanut lectin, (GalNAc), C8H15NO6 | Prenylresveratrol, C19H20O3 | Verruculotoxin, C15H20N2O | South America, Fabaceae.
About 2% of children are affected by allergy to peanuts and they should avoid eating peanuts during their entire life.
Two of the peanut allergens registered as “Ara h” molecules, Ara h 1 and Ara h 3, are the most abundant proteins in peanut extract.
How peanuts are grown, PCA, Peanut Company of Australia
Rhizoma peanut (USA), creeping forage peanut (Australia), (Arachis glabrata), perennial peanut, summer growing, perennial, yields for pasture, hay and silage, may be grown under coconuts or banana trees, can withstand droughts and infertile acidic soils, good cover crop, Fabaceae

5.3.0 Herbal tinctures
5.3.1 Herbal tincture defined
5.3.2 Herbal extracts
5.3.3 Prepare herbal tinctures by maceration
5.3.4 Fresh Plant Tinctures (FTPs)
5.3.5 Fresh plant tinctures easily made at home:
5.3.6 Recipe for a fresh plant tincture based on equivalent dry weight.
5.3.7 Ratios when purchasing pre-made ethanol extracts

5.2.1 Chinese five spice powder
Ingredients:
1. Sichuan pepper, (Zanthoxylum simulans)
2. Star anise, (Illicium verum)
3. Fennel, (Foeniculum vulgare)
4. Chinese cinnamon, (Cinnamomum cassia)
5. Clove, (Syzygium aromaticum)

5.2.2 Flooded herb garden, by Sandra Nanka
* Contamination from raw sewage present in extensive flooding contains bacteria that can cause illness if contaminated produce is eaten.
Use gloves and protective clothing when gardening, and if sewage contamination is suspected, avoid growing edibles for at least a season.
Contact the local environmental protection authority if industrial contamination is suspected.
* Disposal of dead plants and rotting leaves by using a garbage waste facility not the compost heap
* Drainage trenches dug around garden beds removes excess.
When soil doesn't drain properly, plants can't get oxygen and nutrients from the soil, which makes them weaker and vulnerable to disease.
Remove the excess water or add sand and soil and compost to help absorb the moisture and get rid of any unpleasant 'wet dog smell'.
Most plants, especially vegetables, cannot tolerate standing water, so drain off any excess water by digging ditches or furrows.
* Fertilising< with an organic fertiliser under the mulch may be helpful to replace nutrients leached from the soil and encourage re-growth.
If topsoil has been washed away, add manures and mulch to improve the remaining soil.
Flooding can make your soil acidic, so use some garden lime to help neutralise it.
Leave fertilising until the warm growing season returns.
* Fungus diseases should not be ignored, but may be controlled with fungicides.
Apply a phosphoric acid based fungicide for plants showing signs of stress, because affected by Phytophthora root rot.
Apply fungicide to the soil around the roots of trees and ensure good drainage.
* Mulching is needed to protect the soil and cover impacted silt to keep it moist so worms can return and incorporate it into the soil.
The mulch spread prior to the rain may be have been compacted very hard or been washed away.
Dig over your garden and add coarse compost to help bring air into the garden.
* Pruning all rotting plant material away from healthy plants limits the spread of fungal diseases.
Remove only limbs that are physically damaged or obviously dead.
Remove any dead, yellow and damaged leaves.
After a week or so if the herbs are looking like they will survive you can trim them up to encourage fresh new growth.
Watch for signs of die-back, but do not be too hasty to prune everything, because branches that have lost leaves are not necessarily dead.
As long they are still green and pliable, chances are the leaves will regrow.
* Replanting on mounds about 200 millimetres high allows drying to remove over time any contamination in your garden.
Food plants and fruit trees grow better when they're raised, and the gardens are better able to manage heavy rain and flooding.
Use wood chips for pathways, because they absorb water much better than rocks or pavers.
Plan your garden considering where your run-off areas are, so you don't accidentally direct water towards areas that you wish to remain dry.
With the continued overcast skies seedlings may became "leggy", so sunlight and a good position is important for seedlings.
Seaweed solutions application promotes root growth and ability to withstand stress conditions, e.g. waterlogging.
Water with a seaweed solution and leave the plants to adjust to the new conditions.
Allow time to pass before consuming herbs that have been covered in flood water, wait until you have fresh new growth.
* Survival may depend on plant species characteristics and local seasonal climate.
Plants which are dormant in your cold winters may still do well if not too long in waterlogged soil.
Plants flooded in areas which normally have dry winters are more susceptible to rotting during a dormancy period when they would normally be dry.
After the flood, seedlings may appear in unusual places, because seeds may sprout some distance away from the original herb garden.
Herbs not suited to waterlogged soils include sage, thyme, Italian parsley, lemon balm, plantain and oregano.
Herbs in pots had a greater chance of surviving floods, e.g. bay tree, lavender, curry plant and sage.
Some herbs thrive after floods, e.g. Asian coriander and Vietnamese mint.
Perennial herbs that are not yellow and wilted are worth trying to save.
For parsley, sorrel, salad burnet, as new leaves grow from the middle not exposed to the floodwaters, take off older outside leaves at the base of the plant.
For rosemary, thyme, oregano, basil, cut back by about one third.
For chives, shallots and lemongrass, cut back at the base of the plant.
* Symptoms of plants under water stress: leaf yellowing or browning, leaf curling and pointing downward, leaf wilting, reduced new leaf size, branch dieback.
* Washing the silt or mud from the leaves and stems during your flood damage clean up improves access to sunlight for photosynthesis.
Washing may include rubbing plants with soapy water and using a high pressure hose.
Mud and silt can be composted.
* Weeding when the soil is soggy, is a great time to get the deep-rooted weeds out.

5.2.3 "Herb gardens" with Annette McFarlane
1.0 Herbs are easy to grow and are a great option for beginner gardeners.
They are ideal for people with limited space as they adapt well to pots and can be grown in small garden beds.
There is a huge range to choose from.
Most herbs are plants that does not develop a true, woody trunk, and are herbaceous or soft.
Some herbs, e.g. rosemary and lavender, do develop hard stems, but not really a trunk, so these plants do not respond well when you prune them back into their tougher stems.
The bay tree can grow to become a very big tree.
Herbs are often aromatic and usually have a traditional culinary or medicinal use.
The aerials of herbaceous perennials will die, but the roots stay dormant below the ground and will shoot away again when the weather warms up.
2.0 Potting mix
Soil pH of potting mix:
Use 5 parts potting mix and 1 part coir peat plus organic fertilizers based on blood and bone.
Always check the soil pH with a simple soil test kit.
Add sulfur to lower pH.
Add lime to increase pH.
Make your own potting mix using 7 parts compost, 3 parts coir peat and 2 parts washed river sand + an organic fertilizer product, but follow the application
rate on the pack.
3.0 Pots
A planter troughs containing 5-6 litres of potting mix is the minimum size for most herbs.
However, the more vigorous growing herbs, e.g. lemon grass, lemon verbena, pineapple sage, forms of rosemary ("Tuscan Blue"), and true trees.
The. bay tree will require much larger pots containing at least 9 litres of potting mix.
4.0 Plant Selection
Group your herbs according to:
* Life cycle: Annual, biennial /short lived, long lived / perennial.
* Needs: wet, dry, full sun, semi-shade, acid soil, alkaline soil.
5.0 Examples of good combinations:
* Garden mint, spearmint, apple mint, Vietnamese mint, all other mint types.
These plants are perennial, aggressive growers.
They require neutral to slightly acid soil and lots of water.
* Coriander, dill, fennel.
These plants are relatively short lived, like cooler conditions, all hate root disturbance, sow seed direct, and require slightly acidic to slightly alkaline pH.
Sow seeds of these plants directly into the pot and cover lightly with coir peat, as with other herbs or vegetables.
Apply liquid fertilizer when the seeds germinate.
Later you can harvest entire plants (roots, stems and leaves), just the way you buy them from the shop.
* Italian parsley, triple-curled parsley, sweet basil, rocket, purple basil, lemon balm.
They are relatively short lived, tender plants, and require a slightly acidic to slightly alkaline pH.
* Thyme, oregano, marjoram, sage, rosemary, lavender (the "Mediterranean herbs"), onion chives, garlic chives, stevia, perennial coriander, golden
oregano are all perennial, like hot, full sun, neutral to slightly alkaline soil, and can cope with some dryness once established.
Include flowering plants with herb combinations to create a more attractive feature, e.g. nasturtiums, salvia, marigolds, calendula and viola.
The flowering plants are edible.
6.0 Maintenance of a herb garden
* Check the herbs every day so put them where you will notice them.
Water the herbs as required and at least every second day if there is no rain.
* Add mulch to the pots to reduce evaporation and keep the roots cool.
Add stones or pebbles to prevent potting mix splashing out when you add water to the pots.
* Apply liquid organic fertilizer every fortnight and dry fertilizer at the beginning of every season.
Fertilize the soil, rather than the foliage.
Rinse herbs after harvest to get rid of any fertilizer residue.
* Allow herbs to become established before you begin to harvest them with kitchen scissors.
* Herbs, including perennial herbs, do not live forever, especially if you grow them in pots.
Potting mix eventually breaks down and turns to dust.
Pots will become filled with roots.
* Days of rain and high humidity suit mint, but not the Mediterranean herbs.
Sprinkle of garden lime over the foliage of "grey foliage" or "hairy" herbs, e.g. rosemary, lavender and sage, to help overcome the effects of excess humidity during the summer.

5.2.4 Herb growing basic tips, from Queensland Herb Society
Position: Most herbs are hardy and will grow well throughout the garden, or in a separate garden of their own.
Grow herbs amongst your vegetables, they make great companions and they can improve growth and flavour of vegetables and repel pests.
Choose a spot close to the house for easy access, if planting throughout the garden, what you to use the most, close to the house.
The first step is to decide which herbs you would like to grow and how much room you will need.
Make some notes on how they grow, how tall, how wide, do they like lots of sun or do they prefer shade.
Sun: Generally, herbs need full sun, but some will survive on as little as 2 hours of good sun (after 9am) a day.
The herbs flavour and scent is stronger when they have adequate sun.
Herbs with grey leaves like lavender and rosemary require more sun, whilst parsley, mints and lemon balm will take less.
Soil: Most herbs need good drainage and grow best in a light crumbly soil.
Clay soils will need compost and manure dug through, building up the garden to ensure good drainage.
Sandy soils also need compost and manure added to give nutrients and help retain moisture.
Most herbs like a slightly alkaline soil you can add dolomite to increase pH.
Fertilize: Fertilize with a complete fertilizer or organic liquid fertilizer.
Also, use mushroom compost, worm castings and homemade compost containing chook or cow poo.
Planting: When planting out your herbs, soak the roots / tube for a minute in a solution of seaweed, this will help to prevent transplant shock.
Trim off any yellow or damaged leaves.
Water: When herbs are first planted water them in well.
Water regularly for the first week or so.
Once plants have settled in, rather than giving frequent light sprinkling, water deeply less often to encourage plant roots to grow deeper.

5.2.5 Herbal sprinkles
You need a salt shaker for herbal sprinkles and finely powdered dried herbs
Home powdering is not sufficient for most spices, because home blenders are not powerful enough, so use commercially prepared spices.
However, leafy green herbs, e.g. basil, peppermint, parsley and chives powder up well in a home blender.
Some seeds, e.g. coriander can be made fine enough to come through the holes in the shaker.
If shakers have open holes, the herbs are constantly exposed to oxygen, but they still last for six months
To prepare herbal sprinkles:
1. Purchase or home powder dried herbs or spices.
2. Mix herbs together well in a bowl then put them into shaker.
3. Sprinkle them on your food.
Garden meat rub recipe:
1/4 cup sea salt
3 tablespoons powdered rosemary
3 tablespoons powdered orange peel
2 tablespoons powdered thyme
1 tablespoon powdered sage
1 tablespoon powdered black pepper
1 teaspoon powdered horseradish.

5.2.6 Herbal Vinegar to Clean and Refresh by Sandra Nanka
The moisture in the air from our continual very wet weather has left a film of mould on nearly every surface.
To remedy this I have made some herbal vinegar sprays to clean up with.
Vinegar is a cheap and safe way to clean surfaces around your home.
It is free of toxic chemicals that many of the store-bought cleaners contain.
Vinegar kills 99% of bacteria, 82% of moulds, and 80% of viruses, and when you add some herbs, spices or essential oils the effect is multiplied.
There are many combinations that you can choose, let your imagination run wild.
Here are a couple of recipe suggestions to get you started:
1. Rosemary, Lemon and Clove Mould Buster
* 1 litre of white vinegar
* ¼ cup of clove buds
* 1/2 cup of fresh rosemary or dried rosemary
* peel of 1 lemon
Add all ingredients to a 1.5 litre jar, or divide the ingredients between 2 jars.
Set aside for at least 24 hours, or leave the herbs and spices in the vinegar for months before using.
Use undiluted for mouldy surfaces or dilute 50/50 with water in a spray bottle for general cleaning.
I have used this mixture safely on my timber surfaces, but you may want to do a patch test on a small hidden part of the furniture first.
Rosemary is antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral, its fragrance is also very invigorating.
Cloves is known for its antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiseptic properties.
Lemons not only smell fresh and clean they have antibacterial and antiseptic properties as well as mild bleaching power.
2. Lavender, Cinnamon and Orange Peel Cleaner
* 1 litre of white vinegar
* 2 cinnamon sticks
* 1/2 cup of Lavender
* peel of 1 orange
Add all ingredients to a 1.5 litre jar, or divide the ingredients between 2 jars.
Set aside for at least 24 hours, or leave the herbs and spices in the vinegar for months before using.
Use undiluted for really dirty surfaces or dilute 50/50 with water in a spray bottle for general cleaning.
This mix is great for greasy surfaces.
For hard to move stains try sprinkling some bicarbonate of soda on the surface before lightly spraying and scrubbing.
Lavender is antibacterial and anti-fungal with a calming fragrance.
Cinnamon adds a warm spicy scent and also has antibacterial properties.
Oranges have extraordinary cleaning power in the oils of their skin and form the base of many environmentally friendly cleaning products.

5.2.7 Herbs for schools, by Sandra Nanka
School gardens full of vegetables and herbs have become popular over the past ten or so years.
We have often been asked what herbs are suitable to plant in the school garden.
Some of the things that need to be considered are:
Taste: Herbs that have a pleasing flavour, not too bitter or sour.
Children's palates are more sensitive than adults.
Touch: The feel of the herbs is important, don't choose any herbs with prickles or sharp leaves.
Smell: Children love to smell plants.
Here is a short list of tasty fragrant herbs:
Basil offers a great smell as well as flavour a few leaves can be added to salads or sprinkled onto cooked pizza.
There are so many varieties to choose from.
Mint is another great smelling herb with many different varieties.
Spearmint or Egyptian mint, variegated apple mint or pineapple mint are lower in menthol than peppermint, making them less hot to taste.
Sprinkle leaves on fruit and in drinks or mix with some butter to melt over vegetables.
Parsley is a common herb that pairs well with anything.
Chives are a good choice, more subtle in flavour than onion, they can be sprinkled over egg dishes or mixed into salad.
Garlic chives are a hardy option and much quicker to grow than garlic.
Pineapple sage has pretty red flowers of pineapple sage can be added to salads, fruit salads and drinks.
The nectar in the flower gives a sweet taste.
The leaves can be added to salads or chopped into a salad dressing or by stuffing.
Mexican Tarragon is great for making a sweet herb tea.
It has the flavour of aniseed and no sugar is needed.
The tea can also be chilled for a cool drink.
Mushroom plant is a crunchy salad herb that children seem to like as the flavour is mild.
It is very nutritious and easy to grow.
Rosemary is a pungent herb, great for sniffing.
Add to roast vegetables or chop into vegetable muffins.
Oregano is another pungent herb, a "must-have" herb for pasta sauces and pizza.
At the start of term, let the children plant parsley seed or one of the basils - lemon, lime, anis cinnamon, whatever they can find in seed form.
Teaching children about herbs can be fun!
Here are some tips so you can be prepared when your plants arrive:
Position - Where will you grow your plants?
In a pot:
Choose a pot with enough drainage holes.
Purchase a good quality potting mix, we recommend Searles Organic Premium Potting Mix.
In the ground:
Choose a position with well-drained soil and adequate sunlight.
Adding compost to the soil is beneficial.
Fertiliser
We prefer to use organic extra on all of our plants, but if you do not like using pelleted fertilisers, you could use Aminogrow.
as a liquid fertiliser every 2 weeks.
Once your herbs are planted in the garden:
Water them every day for the first week to get them settled in.
Then twice a week for a couple of weeks.
Once they are established they can be watered deeply once a week.
Apply organic slow-release fertiliser as recommended on the package.
During times of intense heat or cold, watering with an eco seaweed solution can be helpful.
Products that contain only seaweed such as Eco Seaweed and Seasol are not replacements for fertiliser.
If your herbs are planted in pots:
Water your herbs every day for the first week.
After the first week, the best way to see if they need to be watered is to stick your finger into the potting mix to a depth of approx 5cm.
If the mix feels dry water well. If the mix feels moist don't water.
Herbs in pots dry out quicker than herbs planted in the ground.
So they will need regular watering.
Apply organic slow-release fertiliser as recommended on the package every 4 - 6 weeks.
During times of intense heat or cold, watering with a seaweed solution can be helpful.
Regular trimming of your herbs encourages fresh new growth and also gives you plenty of fresh, nutritious flavourings for your meals.

5.3.1 Herbal tincture defined
Tincture, (Latin tinctura dying, to dye), in relation to the colouring of the tincture after extraction.
A tincture is typically an ethanolic extract of plant or animal material or solution of such, or of a low volatility substance.
To qualify as an ethanolic tincture, the extract should have an ethanol percentage of at least 25-60% and up to 90%.
In herbal medicine, ethanolic tinctures are made with various ethanol concentrations.

5.3.2 Herbal extracts
The combination of ethanol and water provides the most stable and efficient solvent system for herbal extracts.
Certain constituents that do not dissolve in water will dissolve in ethanol and vice versa, so every ethanolic tincture contains ethanol and water.
Water is a good solvent for gums, mucilage, inorganic salts, sugars, colouring matter, alkaloids, salts, vegetable acids, glycosides, proteins, enzymes and tannins.
Ethanol effectively dissolves some glycosides, resins, alkaloids and anthraquinones.
Herbal tinctures can be made very simply by maceration of fresh or dried herbs in a large glass jar, but dried herbs is the most common.
The extraction process is basically the same for fresh and dried herbs, but when using fresh herbs the water content of the plant material must be known.
The best guide to recommended ethanol percentages is the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (BHP) tincture formulae.

5.3.3 Prepare herb tinctures by maceration
1. Grind the herb to a moderately coarse grind, but not to a powder.
2. Weigh the herb and place it in a large glass jar with a screw lid that has been sterilized in advance.
3. Calculate the volume of solvent needed to make the strength of tincture required.
Establish the proportion of ethanol needed for the most efficient extraction and preservation of the selected herb, and mix the ethanol and water.
4. Add prepared solvent to the glass jar and cap it tightly.
5. Use an indelible marker to label the glass jar: date, name of herb, w/v ratio, solvent(s) used and their percentage.
6. Shake the jar 1-2 times daily for 14-30 days, and keep it in a warm place, out of direct light.
7. Decant, press or squeeze and filter the liquid, leaving the plant material after extraction, called the marc.
8. Store in dark glass with an airtight lid below 30^oC and avoid exposure to light.

5.3.4 Fresh Plant Tinctures, (FTPs)
Make a fresh plant tincture by maceration.
Fresh plant tinctures (FPTs), are made from freshly harvested, undried herbs.
FTPs are made from freshly harvested, undried herbs, by maceration.
The water in fresh plants will add to the water component of the solvent, so it must be considered when calculating the total volume of the solvent, and
the amount of water and ethanol to use.
Some tips for making FPT'S:
Before macerating, mash, grate or pulp the fresh herb, using a sharp knife, grater, juicer, blender, food processor.
Non-woody fresh plants can be blended directly with their solvent.
Caution: Blenders and food processors are not recommended for tough roots or woody stems, because the blades are not strong enough and will get damaged.
The plastic bowl of a processor can react to strong concentrations of ethanol and crack, so either use a blender with a glass bowl or chop/grate the fresh herb using the processor, empty herb into glass jar, then add the ethanol solvent.
Fresh plant tinctures are best consumed within 6 months, but, if refrigerated, will last a year.

5.3.6 Recipe for a fresh plant tincture based on equivalent dry weight:
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) fresh plant tincture, 1:10 in 60%o ethanol.
1. Weigh, dry, then re-weigh a 10g sample of the ginger.
2. If the dried sample weighs 2g, moisture content = 80% (10 - 2 = 8/10 x 100 = 80%) and the dry weight is 20% of the fresh weight (2/10 x 100 = 20%).
3. So 100g fresh ginger has an equivalent dry weight of 20 g and contains 80 mL of water.
4. To make a 1:10 tincture of 100g fresh ginger, use 200 mL of solvent as there is 20 g of dried herb equivalent in 100 g fresh herb.
(20g : 200 mL = 1:10 w:v)
5. To calculate how much solvent to add, subtract moisture content of fresh plant from total volume of solvent required.
(200 mL- 80 mL= 120 mL)
6. The percentage ethanol required for this solvent is 60%.
(60% of 200 mL is 120 mL)
7. Add 120 mL of 95.8 % ethanol to make up the 200 mL of solvent.
(80 mL water in plant + l20 mL ethanol = 200 mL of 60% ethanol solvent).

5.3.7 Ratios when purchasing pre-made ethanol extracts
Most tinctures made by professional manufacturers are called fluid extracts and are usually at a ratio of 1:1 or l:2.
This is extremely difficult to achieve accurately at home.
In Australia, few companies specialise in liquid herbal manufacturing, which are available for practitioner dispensing only.
The ratios 1:1, 1:2, 1:5; 1:10 measure dried herb amount: mL.
For example, the ratio 1:l means 1000 mg of dried herb in 1 mL of solvent.
The ratios 1:5 and 1:10 are a lot more dilute and are used for herbs that are potentially toxic and/or very strong.
Reference: Adams, J & Tan, E. 2006.
Herbal Manufacturing: "How to Make Medicines from Plants", Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE, Preston, Victoria

5.9 Protect the herbs from frost, by Sandra Nanka
Frost forms when the temperature falls below 0oC, and if water vapour is in the air.
These low temperatures can cause some plants cells to shrink, forcing water into spaces between the cells where it can freeze, form ice crystals and damage to the plant cells.
1. Get to know the Plants.
Make a list of what plants in the garden could be affected by frost.
Tropical and subtropical herbs will need protection, e.g. turmeric, curry leaf tree, gotu kola, vegetable pepper, and galangal.
Mediterranean herbs will take light frosts, e.g. rosemary, thyme, oregano and lavender.
2. Use a seaweed solution.
Before the cold season, weakly water the herbs with seaweed solution, e.g. Eco seaweed fertiliser, Seasol fertiliser, to increase he ability of plants to withstand extreme cold.
3. Mulch the herbs.
Spread a 10cm layer of cane, lucerne or pea straw mulch around the herbs to protect the roots from ground freezes.
4. Check the weather forecast to know what the overnight temperature is going to be.
5. Ensure the herb garden is moist.
Give the herb garden good soaking during the early afternoon so that the moist soil and higher humidity around the plants will moderate temperature extremes.
6. Bring herbs in pots them inside near a sunny window.
7. Cover herbs with a cloche, a bell-shaped glass or plastic covering or plastic bottles with the bottom cut off the bottle.
Push the cut end of plastic bottle into the soil around the plant, but take it off during the day or the plant may suffocate.
If it is still really cold during the day, undo the lid of the bottle to let some air in.
8. Use old blankets and tomato stakes.
Utilise old blankets, hessian bags, towels and sheets to create tents for the plants.
Use timber tomato stakes or bamboo stakes to make a tripod frame over frost-sensitive plants.
Drape the blankets over the frames making sure they cover the ground and remove them the next day when the sun is shining.
9. Use cold frames and tunnels.
Make cold frames from second-hand windows and wooden frames, or buy ready-made poly tunnels to put over the herbs in the garden.
10. Water the herbs before the sun rises.
Before the sun hits the herbs, spray the plants with a gentle sprinkle from the hose to thaw frozen plants and stop the cells from bursting when the sun hits them.
Do not use warm water, because it could do more damage.

5.5.0 Sprouts and microgreens
For sprouting, use seeds purchased from a reputable seed specialist.
Wash the seeds, then initiate germination by soaking the seeds in warm water overnight.
Rinse the soaked seeds thoroughly to remove any discoloration.
Place the seeds in a jar and use a rubber band to attach a piece of fly screen to the top of the jar.
Invert the jar 45^o and place the inverted jar in a dish on a windowsill.
Rinse the seeds three times each day.
Microgreens are an exciting, colourful, gourmet alternative to sprouts.
They are half way in size between sprouts and salad mix, and are usually grown in seedling trays.
Microgreens differ from sprouts, they are grown in sunlight and harvested with scissors when there are 2 or more true leaves, but sprouts are eaten much smaller.
Use the following for sprout or microgreens:
Adzuki bean, Alfalfa, Amaranth, Basil (Greek), Basil (purple), Basil (sweet), Basil (Thai), Broccoli, Buckwheat (hulled), Cabbage (red), Carrot, Celery.
Chard (red), Chervil, Chickpea, Chive, Coriander, Dandelion, Dill, Kohlrabi, Lemon balm, Lentil, Mung bean, Mache (Lamb's lettuce), Mint, Mustard cress.
Onion, Pea tendrils, Quinoa, Red garnet, Rockmelon, Mizuna (green), Mizuna (red), Mustard (red), Parsley (continental), Parsley (curly), Radish (green).
Radish (red), Rockmelon, Rocket, Salad burnet, Shiso (green), Some growers prefer coco coir to grow on, using 10 x10 trays with and without holes.
Some seeds need to soak first, but most just put a layer of coco coir in the tray with holes and spray daily, unless too wet.
Leave in black out for 3-4 days then bring into light.
Use a shelve unit with LED lights set up and small fans for circulation.

5.6.0 "Mothers" in the plant nursery, by Sandra Nanka
The "Mothers" are the most important plants in the plant nursery.
The term "mother stock" is often used in plant nurseries, where it refers to a healthy, well-established plants used as the source for cuttings, division and seeds to produce new offspring.
There are several reasons why mother stock is important in a nursery:
* Consistency: Using a consistent and high-quality source of propagation material helps ensure that the resulting plants will be of consistent quality.
* Disease resistance: Mother stock plants that have proven to be disease resistant can help ensure that the new plants will be as well.
Mother stock can be chosen for specific desirable traits, e.g. fast growth, drought resistance, or disease resistance.
* Efficiency: Using mother stock for cuttings can be more efficient than starting from seed.
The mother plant has already gone through the difficult stages of germination and early growth, and the cuttings, once rooted, are likely to be more robust and healthy than young seedlings.
* Cost-effective: Collecting seed and cuttings from mother plants saves money instead of buying them elsewhere.
The three methods of propagation in a plant nursery:
* Cuttings are used for most plants, because cuttings are exact copies or clones of the parent plant.
Perennial herbs usually propagated by cuttings, e.g. rosemary, thyme, perennial basil, mints, lavenders, oregano, lemon verbena, catnip, and catmint.
* Seeds can produce plants with variable traits, so they do not produce exact copies of the parent plant.
Annual and biennials are usually propagated from seeds, e.g. chervil, coriander, dill, and burdock.
* Division is an easy way to get several plants from one adult perennial plant.
Clumping plants, plants that produce suckers, and rhizomes, bulbs and tubers are usually propagated by division, e.g. lemon grass, society garlic, horseradish, turmeric and comfrey.
Division gives exact copies or clones of the parent plant.
Care of Mother stock
Every week, visit the mother stock to check that they are growing well.
Check for:
* Insect damage: Some insects can be picked off by hand, but you may need to use a spray to control them, e.g. "Econeem, Eco Organic Garden".
* Fertiliser: Apply organic extra every 4 - 6 weeks, depending on how often the plants are getting cut back, e.g. "Organic Xtra".
* Water: As the mother stock gets older, they may look like they need more water, because of a blocked sprinkler.
The plant may be pot-bound, where the roots have tightly filled the pots, making it hard for the water to penetrate the soil.
These plants must be replaced or divided and potted into fresh soil.
* Overgrowth: If the plants have not had cuttings taken from them, they may need cutting back to encourage bushier grown and fresh new stems.
* Spacing: During the rapid summer growth period, they might need spacing to allow for the extra growth.
* Night time visitors: Possums, wallabies, rats and mice can all eat quite a lot of herbs in one night.
Sometimes they just pick on one tasty variety, so the plants must be be moved to another area or enclosed in a wire cage.
Quassia chips as a spray works quite well for deterring possums as they do not like the taste of it.

5.12 The names of herbs
Genus names start with a capital letter and are nouns.
They are followed by the species name, which starts with a lower case letter and are usually adjectives.
For example Zea mays - Maize, Indian corn, "corn" as in Kellogg's Corn Flakes.
The Indian name for this plant is "Mays"!
Many names use the former Latin or Greek language.
For example, Herb comes from the Latin word, (Latin herba 'grass')
(Those horrible Romans called our dear herbs "grass"!)
Another example is for Eucalyptus. The (Greek eu 'good', and kalypto 'conceal'), so called, because the calyx of the Eucalyptus covers the flower.
Latin nouns may end with the masculine -us, -is, -es, or the feminine -a, or the neutral -um, -e.
So every genus name is a masculine, feminine or neuter noun.
Many trees and shrubs were thought to be feminine, for no apparent reason.
Blackberry (Rubus ursinus) has a masculine name and banana (Musa acuminata) has a feminine name!
The genus names can be any of the following:
1. A person's name, usually a famous botanist, often with a Latin termination.
For example (Banksia serrata) is named after Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820 ), who first collected it in 1770, at Botany Bay.
Is he the original Big Bad Banksia Man of the Gumnut stories?
(Stevia rebaudiana) was named after Dr Rebaudi, from Paraguay, the chemist who extracted the sweetness of Stevia.
2. Native name
The native name may be in its original form or with a Latin termination.
Vanilla: is the Spanish name for the fruit.
The cacao tree, (cocoa tree), (Theobroma cacao), and the wild carrot, (Daucus carota), are the original names of these plants.
These names are nouns turned into adjectives.
3. Ancient classical name
For example, Monkshood, Wolf's-bane, [Greek Akoniton, (Aconitum napellus)], and Narcissus [Greek Narkissos, (Narcissus poeticus].
4. Combination of former names
(Sequoia sempervirens) is the tallest and longest living tree, but the genus name Sequoia was made up, possibly from the name of a Cherokee Indian.
5. Descriptive name to show that it is like another plant or has an usual habitat or a part with certain shape.
For example: Australian round lime, (Citrus australis) - it comes from Australia, and garlic, (Allium sativum) - (Latin sativum 'cultivated').
6. Hybrid names
The rules about hybrid names are very complex.
A simple hybrid can be shown by listing the two parent plants linked by the multiplication sign "×".
For example when (Mentha aquatica) (water mint) is crossed with (Mentha spicata) (spearmint), it gives birth to (Mentha × piperita), (peppermint).
The genus name can be shortened to one letter to save space.
So instead of parsley (Petroselinium crispum), after using the name in full the first time, we can simply call it (P. crispum).
Here are some herb common names:
Basil / Sweet basil, (Ocimum basilicum): (Greek ozo 'smell'), because basil has a nice smell.
Coriander, (Coriandrum sativum): (Greek koris 'bug')
The reason for this name is that people, who don't like the soapy smell and the sodium fluoride taste of coriander, have the genes which allow them to detect the chemicals, in the bug family of insects!
Water mint, (Mentha aquatica): Mentha was its Roman name.
Comfrey (Symphytum officinale), (Greek symphyo 'to unite', because Comfrey was a healing medicine).
(Latin officinale or officinalis 'monastery storeroom', because it was a useful plant).
The L. after the name means that this plant was first described by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778).
Fennel, (Foeniculum vulgare), (Latin foenum 'hay', because fennel smells like hay.)
Ginger, (Zingiber officinale): Zingiber is the Indian name for this plant.
Lavender, (Lavandula angustifolia), (Latin lavo 'wash', because the Romans washed in lavender water.)
Marigold, (Calendula officinalis), (Latin calendae 'the first day of the month', because it produces flowers the whole year round.)
Nasturtium, (Tropaeolum majus): (Greek tropaion 'trophy', because it has shield-shaped leaves.
Onion, (Allium cepa): (Celtic allium 'all hot', because it has a hot effect on the eyes.
Oregano, (Origanum vulgare), (Greek oros 'mountain' gamos 'joy', because oregano came from the mountains.)
Rosemary, (Salvia rosmarinus), (Latin ros 'dew', marinus 'the sea', because it had a maritime natural habitat.)
Sage, (Salvia officinalis), (Latin salvo 'to save', because sage was used as a medicine).
Thyme, (Thymus vulgaris), (Greek thuo 'perfume', because thyme has a nice smell.
Adaptogen, anti-stress herb, e.g. ginseng, rhodiola, but adaptogen is not a scientific term!

5.13 Bunya Pines
Bunya Pines is a really yummy Australian native food.
They only crop every 2-3 years, but when they do, what a feast!
The large balls weigh 5-10kg.
When ripe they will fall from the tree often smashing open on impact.
If not simply break the pod apart and remove the nuts, (usually by throwing it against something hard).
Nuts can be eaten raw, but are a bit starchy.

5.7.0 Hybrids, The First hybrid
The many rumours about the idea of the sexuality of plants were answered by the German botanist, Rudolf Jacob Camerarius, famous for his publication on the reproductive organs in plants, in 1694.
He had studied reproduction of mulberry, castor and maize, and realised the role of pollen to carry characteristics from stamen to ovule.
But here were other rumours about different plants cohabiting.
Striped forms of the gillyflower, the clove pink, (Dianthus caryophylus), were once very popular in England.
We now know that they were hybrid forms of genus Dianthus.
However, in Shakespeare's play, "The Winter's Tale", Act IV, Scene III, written in 1611, Perdita declares her dislike of striped gilly flowers, by saying "Which some call nature's bastards, ... and I care not to get slips of them".
In 1717, London nurseryman Thomas Fairchild noticed plants with characteristics of Sweet William, (Dianthus barbatus), and Carnation, (Dianthus caryophyllus). He decide to do an experiment, which we now regard as a famous experiment.
He tried to produce a plant with both characters.
He used a little brush to carry some pollen from a Sweet William plant to the pistil of a Carnation plant.
He grew the seed from this fertilization, and his gardener friends called the grown plant "Fairchild's mule".
His friends all knew that the useful animal called the mule has a donkey father and a horse mother.
"Fairchild's mule" was the first hybrid deliberately created.
Some people did not like "Fairchild's mule", on religious grounds.
Genesis 1:11 King James version:
And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after its kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so.
They asked whether Thomas Fairchild was trying to do the work of God by creating new "kinds".
They told him to stop "playing God".
But the English meaning of the Hebrew word "min", translated as "kind"is still disputed.
Thomas Fairchild left money in his will for a sermon to be preached annually at St Leonard's Church, Shordich, UK, on "the certain changes of the animal and vegetal parts of the creation."
The sermon is still given annually.
Bud sport, sport
A "bud sport" or "sport" describes a part of a plant showing different characters, compared to the rest of the plant or compared to the same part in other plants of the same species.
It is probably caused by a genetic mutation and may be cultivated as a new useful variety, e.g. the 'KJ Pinks' and 'PinksBlush' varieties of the Australian custard apple, Atemoya, which is itself a hybrid, (Annona squamosa x Annona cherimoia).