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School Science Lessons
2024-12-23
(UNBiolDiversity)
Diversity
Please send comments to: j.elfick@uq.edu.au
Contents
9.1.0 Animal kingdom (animals)
9.2.0 Archaea
9.3.0 Chromista
9.12.0 Eucaryota and Prokaryota
9.5.0 Heterokontophyta
9.6.0 Phytophthora, water mould, Phylum Oomycota.
9.7.0 Protista
9.8.0 Taxons
9.9.0 Phylum Metamonada
9.10.0 Phylum Amoebozoa, (Phylum Rhizopoda)
9.11.0 Phylum Ciliophora
9.1.0 Animal kingdom, (animals)
9.1.0 Animals
2.0 Animals (Primary)
4.1.1 Animal tissue culture, Safety in school science
9.1.1 Phylum Protozoa (protozoans)
9.1.2 Phylum Porifera, (sponges)
9.1.3 Phylum Coelenterata
9.1.4 Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
9.1.5 Phylum Nematoda (nematodes)
9.1.6 Phylum Annelida (annelids)
9.1.7 Phylum Arthropoda (crustaceans, insects, spiders, mites)
9.1.7.1 Daphnia sp, water flea
.9.1.8 Phylum Mollusca (molluscs)
9.1.9 Phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms)
9.1.10 Phylum Chordata (chordates)
9.1.11 Phylum Hemichordata (hemichordates)
9.1.12 Subphylum Urochordata (sea squirts, tunicates)
9.1.13 Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates)
9.1.14 Class Agnatha, Petromyzontida, jawless fish, lampreys
9.1.15 Class Chondrichthes, cartilaginous fish, elasmobranchs, (sharks, dogfish, stingrays)
9.1.16 Class Osteichthyes, (bony fish, ray-finned fish, "fish and chips")
9.1.17 Class Sarcopterygii, (lobe-finned fishes, coelacanths)
9.1.18 Subclass Dipnoi (lungfishes)
9.1.19 Class Amphibia (amphibians)
9.1.20 Class Reptilia (reptiles)
9.1.21 Class Aves (birds)
9.1.22 Class Mammalia (mammals)
9.1.23 Classification of a rabbit
9.1.24 Class Mammalia, Humans, (mammals)
9.1.1 Phylum Protozoa (protozoans)
See diagram 9.3.35: Protozoa.
The term protozoa has been abandoned by scientists in favour of the term protist meaning any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant, or fungus.
Protists do not form a natural group, but are a paraphyletic assemblage of similar-appearing. but diverse taxa, said to be members of the Kingdom Protista.
9.7.0 Kingdom Protista (protists)
The old classification of Phylum protozoa:
Protozoa are single-celled (unicellular), but may be colonial if no division of functions.
Gas exchange and excretion is by diffusion.
Osmoregulation in freshwater forms is by a contractile vacuole.
Asexual reproduction is by binary fission and sometimes sexual reproduction by conjugation occurs.
1. Class Rhizopoda, move by pseudopodia, feed by phagocytosis
9.10.0 Phylum Amoebozoa, (Phylum Rhizopoda)
2. Class Mastigophora, move by flagella and feed by direct absorption
9.3.5 Class Euglenoidea, Euglena
3. Class Ciliophora, move by cilia and feed by phagocytosis through a "mouth" part of the cell
9.11.0 Phylum Ciliophora, ciliate, Paramecium
4. Class Sporozoa, parasitic so no obvious method of locomotion, feed by direct absorption from the host
9.7.3 Phylum Apicomplexa, (parasites), Plasmodium vivax
9.1.11 Protozoan diseases
9.1.11 Protozoan diseases
9.1.9 Succession in a pond community, hay infusion cultures, Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium
9.1.2 Phylum Porifera, (sponges)
Porifera, (Latin porus pore, and ferre, to bear), mostly marine in tidal zones attached to submerged rocks. body of two layers, water enters in the body through many pores into the central body cavity, skeleton composed of collagen spongin and calcium carbonate or silica, filter feeders.
9.1.3 Phylum Coelenterata
Phylum Coelenterata (Phylum Ctenophora, comb jellies, Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, sea anemones)
Classification of Coelenterata
(Modern taxonomists use the following phyla instead of Phylum Coelenterata: Phylum Ctenophora, comb jellies, Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, sea anemones)
Phylum Coelenterata, (Greek koilos hollow, énteron, intestine), are mostly marine colonial organisms, with two cell layers, ectoderm and endoderm, separated by jelly-like mesogloea, have radial symmetry, hollow cup-like body (enteron cavity), with only one entrance, tentacles around the mouth, independent stinging cells not connected to the network nervous system.
Coelenterata have two body forms:
The hydroid form is a sedentary polyp.
The medusa form is a plankton jellyfish-like organism.
1. Class Hydrozoa, have polyp and medusa forms in the life cycle Order Hydrida
e.g. Hydra, is one of the few freshwater species
See diagram 9.37.4 Hydra.
Obelia forms a colony of hollow tubes attached to seaweed with polyp heads, hydranths, specialized either for feeding or for reproducing by medusa buds.
See diagram 9.37.7 Obelia.
Order Siphonophora, marine pelagic with apical float, pneumatophore e.g. Physalia, "Portuguese man-of-war"
See diagram 9.37.6 Physalia, "Portuguese man-of-war".
In Australia, it is commonly called a "bluebottle", where the dactylozoids detach in the water off the surfing beaches and surfers are stung by the nematocysts.
2. Class Scyphozoa, jellyfish, medusa form is the main stage in the life cycle, e.g. Aurelia
See diagram 9.37.5 Aurelia jellyfish.
The "jellyfish", which may be classified as Phylum Cnidaria, subphylum Medusozoa, refers only to the medusa phase of the life cycle.
Some aquariums use the term "sea jellies"instead of "jellyfish", because it is not a "fish".
3. Class Anthozoa (Actinozoa), only the polyp stage in the life cycle, Order Alcyonaria, corals,
e.g. Red coral, Corallium rubrum, Order Zoantharia
e.g. Sea anemone, Actinia equina.
9.1.4 Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
9.1.7 Flatworms, Dugesia, Planaria
9.1.8H Fluke diseases, trematode diseases, Class Trematoda
9.1.12H Tapeworm diseases, Class Cestoda
Classification of Platyhelminthes
Many Platyhelminthes are parasites of humans and other animals.
To control these parasites, their life cycle can be broken by killing the hosts or parasites in the host, thoroughly cooking food that contain parasites, and sanitary disposal of human and animal wastes.
Make sure that children wash their hands thoroughly after handling cats and dogs.
Platyhelminthes have a dorsiventrally-flattened body (flattened from above), bilateral symmetry (head, tail, left and right sides), three cell layers: (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm), but no body cavity.
Both sex organs are present in the one organism (hermaphrodite).
They have a primitive brain and paired ventral nerve cords.
The three classes of platyhelminthes are as follows:
1. Class Turbellaria, planarians, are free-living flatworms with simple anterior eyes and can replace lost body parts (regeneration).
They move with cilia and rhythmical muscle contraction to scavenge detritus.
2. Class Trematoda, flukes, have a complex attaching devices of suckers and sometimes hooks.
They attach themselves to the interior of the host and suck in blood and mucus with a muscular pharynx.
Cat liver fluke (Opisthorchiasis felineus)
Chinese liver fluke (Clonorchis sinensis)
Lung fluke (Paragonimus westermani)
Schistosoma fluke (Schistosoma mansoni, S. japonicum), bilharzia, schistosomiasis disease, infection by skin penetration, parasite in freshwater snails
Sheep liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica)
See diagram 9.37.1: Fasciola hepatica.
3. Class Cestoda, tapeworms, attach to the gut wall of host by an attaching device (scolex) with hooks and suckers.
The body is divided into segments (proglottids) that are continually produced behind the scolex.
They remain attached to the interior of the hosts digestive system and absorb the pre digested food.
Pork tapeworm (Taenia solium), infection from eating undercooked pork
See diagram 9.37.2: Taenia solium.
Hydatid tapeworm (Echinococcus granulosis), infection from faeces in dog fur
See diagram 9.37.3: Life cycle of Echinococcus granulosis.
Cat tapeworm (Dipylidium caninum), infection from ingestion of cat flea.
9.1.5 Phylum Nematoda (nematodes)
Phylum Nematoda (nematodes, roundworms, pinworms, threadworms, hookworms)
Ascaris lumbricoides (human intestinal roundworm)
Slide – Echinococcus Granulosus of Entire Worm, Modern Teaching Aids, (Commercial).
See diagram 9.37.9: Rhabditis mature female.
9.1.10H Nematode diseases
11.22 Burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis
9.1.6 Phylum Annelida, (annelids)
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms), annelids
9.6.1 Phylum Annelida (segmented worms, ringed worms)
9.14.7 Worm farms
Annelids, soft cylindrical bodies, segmented, bilaterally symmetrical, blood vessels, bristles (chaetae), main body cavity (coelom) surrounded by mesoderm with ducts to exterior to carry wastes, (filtered by nephridia), gametes, paired ventral nerve cords
Class Polychaeta, mostly marine, move by undulations and parapodia bearing many chaetae, separate sexes, free-swimming larva, distinct head.
Class Oligochaeta, terrestrial burrowing, digest garden detritus, move by peristalsis ripples, few chaetae, hermaphrodite, eggs laid in cocoons, no larva
See diagram 9.37.8 TS Lumbricus terrestris.
Class Hirudinea, leeches, suck blood, use anticoagulant, segments divided into rings, no chaetae or parapodia, hermaphrodite, eggs laid in cocoons, no larva.
9.1.7 Phylum Arthropoda, (arthropods)
9.1.4 Arthropod parasitic diseases
Subphylum Chelicerata, mites, spiders, ticks
Acaricides
Subphylum Myriapoda, (myriapods) segmented body, a pair of antennae, spiracles, millipedes, centipedes)
House Centipede, (Allothereua maculata), (Greek: murias = ten thousand, pod = foot)
Subphylum Crustacea, crustacean
Class Branchiopoda, brine shrimps, water flea (Daphnia sp.)
Class Cephalocarida, horseshoe shrimps
Class Copepoda, copepods, fish lice
Class Malacostraca, crayfish, prawn, crabs, krill, lobsters, crayfish, crabs, shrimps
Class Maxillopoda, copepod, barnacle
Class Ostrocoda, seed shrimps
Subphylum Hexopoda,(insects)
Class Insecta
Orders of insects
Order Anoplura, sucking lice
Order Aptera, wingless, fleas, silverfish
Order Coleoptera, forewings fully hardened), weevils, scarabs, chafers, dung beetles, longicorn beetles, jewel beetles
Order Diptera, two‑winged, flying wings and 'halteres' for balance, mosquitoes, midges, sand flies, blowflies house fly
Order Ephemoptera, smaller membranous hindwings, held upright at rest and oten pressed together, mayflies
Order Hemiptera, forewings partly hardened, sucking mouthparts, aphids, hoppers, scale insects, cicadas, water striders, bed bugs
Order Hymenoptera, two pairs of membranous wings, body has distinct waist, ants, wasps, bees, sawflies, vinegar fly
Order Lepidoptera, scaly wings, butterflies, moths
Order Megaloptera, alderflies, dobsonflies
Order Neuroptera, main veins in the wings, net-winged, lacewings, mantid flies, antlions
Order Odonata, at rest spread wings out to the side, dragonflies, damselflies
Order Plecoptera, stoneflies
Order Trichoptera, caddisflies
9.5.0 Insects
9.9.1 Ants
9.1.6 Bees, honeybee
11.13 Banana spotting bug, Amblypelta lutescens, fruit-spotting bugs
11.17 Banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus, Banana weevil borer
5.0 Prepare insect-fixing solutions
Insect fixing solutions, Prepare
Insects Insect pests (websites)
Insect repellents
4.5 Insecticides
4.9 KAA, insect fixing fluid
9.5.0 Insects
9.9.5. Mosquito sprays, insecticides, repellents
9.9.6 Wolbachia bacteria, sterilized mosquito trial
9.1.7 Phylum Arthropoda (crustaceans, insects, spiders, mites)
9.1.7.1 Daphnia, water flea
Water-Fleas, (Genus daphnia), iNaturalistAu
Daphnia, LiveFishFood, Australia
9.1.3 Community of aquatic organisms (See 5.)
18.7.4 Effect of household detergents on freshwater organisms
9.1.5 Stain living Daphnia
16.5.9 Tests for the toxic effect of drugs on water fleas
Daphne magma
Daphne pulex
9.9.1.0 Order Diptera, Drosophila
9.6.0 Drosophila experiments, Mendel's laws
9.9.2.0 Order Diptera, mosquito
9.9.1 Ants
Ant Farm, (Commercial).
3.01 Ants life cycle (Primary)
9.2.0 Ants
9.9.2 Bees, honeybee
See Bees honeybee, (Agriculture).
Beeswax (Chemistry)
9.3.0 Bees
Neonicotinoid insecticides
9.171.1 Osmosis with honey on bread
9.9.1.0 Order Diptera
(true flies, two-winged flies, bee flies, blow flies, blue bottles, bot flies, crane flies, daddy long legs, fruit flies, gall midges, gnats,
house flies, hover flies, midges, moth flies, sand flies, tsetse flies, vinegar flies)
Suborder Brachycera (circular-seamed flies, muscoid flies, short-horned flies)
Family Drosophilidae (pomace flies, small fruit flies, vinegar flies)
Drosophila melanogaster (common fruit fly)
9.9.2.0 Order Diptera, Mosquito
Suborder Nematocera (long-horned flies)
Family Culicidae (mosquitoes)
Anopheles gambiae (South American mosquito)
Culex tarsalis (North American mosquito)
Aedes notoscriptus, "backyard mosquito", Australia
Aedes vigilax, salt marsh mosquito, Australia
3.02 Mosquito life cycle
9.9.5 Mosquito sprays, insecticides, repellents
32.1.2.1 Mosquito bite clicker, Piezoelectricity (See: 4.)
9.9.5. Mosquito sprays, insecticides, repellents
DDT
Garlic spray
Malathion Maldison
Methoxychlor
Methoprene C19H34O3
Bti insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis
Mosquito repellents:
DEET
Allethrin, bioallethrin
Oil of citronella
9.9.6 Wolbachia bacteria, sterilized mosquito trial
This breakthrough could support the suppression and potential eradication of Aedes aegypti worldwide.
The landmark trial involved releasing three million male Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in Northern Queensland, sterilised Wolbachia bacteria.
The sterile male insects search out and mate with wild females, preventing the production of offspring.
Scientists returned the following year and found one of the trial sites, Mourilyan in Queensland, was almost devoid of mosquitoes.
CSIRO scientist Professor Nigel Beebe, said the trial demonstrates this technique is capable of effectively suppressing mosquito populations.
“During the trial, we saw over 80 per cent of the mosquito population suppressed across our three trial sites.
The following year, the suppression was still in effect, with 97 % reduction of Aedes aegypti.
One year on, the mosquito population at the second trial site remained substantially suppressed, while the population fully recovered at the third site.
The technique can also be used to remove the virus-transmitting Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, in the Torres Strait Islands.
9.1.8 Phylum Mollusca, (molluscs)
Molluscs have an unsegmented, soft body, a muscular foot or tentacles, a mantle that can secrete a shell, a radula (tongue with teeth) .
Molluscs can be found in marine, terrestrial and freshwater environments, and most molluscs are snails and slugs.
Natural pearls are formed when a small, foreign object gets stuck inside an oyster .
Class Gastropoda, (gastropods), snails, slugs abalone, limpets, conch shells, nudibranchs .
Class Bivalvia, (bivalves), clams, oysters, scallops, mussels.
Class Polyplacophora, chitons, eight overlpping plates, live attached to rocks in tidal areas, use radula to scrape off algae.
Class Cephalopoda, (cephalopods), squid, octopuses, cuttlefish, nautiluses.
Class Scaphopoda, (scaphopods), tusk shells, curved tooth-like, open-ended shells, live inmarine sand and mud.
Class Aplacophora, spicule worms, look like worms with spicules in skin instead of a shell, live in deep-water habitats .
5.4 Shellfish, molluscs (Primary)
9.1.9 Phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms)
Echinoderms have basic adult parts in fives, calcite skeleton, hydraulic tube feet or a water-vascular system.
They occur maimly in shallow coastal or reefal waters.
Class Asteroidea, (asteroids), starfish or sea stars
Class Crinoidea, (crinoids), feather stars and sea lilies
Class Ophiuroidea, (ophiuroids), brittle stars and basket stars
Class Echinoideasea, (echinoids), sea urchins, heart urchins and sand dollars
Class Holothuroidea, (holothuroids), sea cucumbers, trepang or bêche de mer
Crown-of-Thorns starfish, (Acanthaster planci), huge increase in numbers and destructive effects on the corals of Australian Great Barrier Reef.
9.1.10 Chordata, chordates, Phylum Chordata
Chordates have a nerve cord along the back of the body,and a 'notochord' or firm rod of cells beneath the nerve cord,
gill slits, (not in some chordates, but were present during evolutionary development)
9.1.11 Phylum Hemichordata (hemichordates)
Hemichordata, Biodiversity
9.1.12 Subphylum Urochordata (sea squirts, tunicates)
Ascidians have a primitive backbone at some stage of their life cycle, most are hermaphrodites and reproduce by external fertilisation.
Their free-swimming larva, ascidian tadpoles, secrete slime and attach themselves to a rock surface head-first, and then absorb their tail.
Adult ascidians are unable to move around and filter food particles from the water by pumping water in one siphon and out the other.
Ascidians are called "sea squirts", because they squirt jet of water if trodden on when they are uncovered at low tide.
9.1.13 Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates)
Vertebrates have a vertebral column, bony vertebrae separated by mobile discs, developed from the notochord.
9.1.14 Class Agnatha, Petromyzontida, jawless fish
Cyclostomi (hagfish and lampreys)
Agnathans are the oldest fossils with a skull but no jaws.
Hagfish have no scales, weak eyes under skin, and live deep in the ocean.
Lampreys, lamprey eels, parasitic on river and lake fish, two eyes and two primitive eyes, fishing pest, but good to eat and cook to make jellied eels.
Superclass Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
9.1.15 Class Chondrichthes, (cartilaginous fish), elasmobranchs, (sharks, dogfish, stingrays)
Chondrichthyes (Greek khóndros 'cartilage' and ikhthús 'fish'), jawed fish, which all have skeletons primarily composed of cartilage.
Chondrichthyes are aquatic vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, placoid scales, conus arteriosus in the heart, and no opercula and swim bladders.
Subclass Elasmobranchii contain the sharks, rays, skates and sawfish.
Subclass Holocephali contain the chimaeras, ghost sharks
Size of elasmobranks is from 10 cm, finless sleeper ray, to the over 10 m, whale shark.
9.1.16 Class Osteichthyes, (bony fish, "fish")
Osteichthyes or bony fish, which have skeletons primarily composed of bone tissue.
Since 2019, understanding of how species composition of fish assemblages varies with changing habitat and environmental conditions has advanced.
The range of suitable habitat for some important fishery species will substantially reduce, e.g. red throat emperor, dusky flathead and blue threadfin salmon.
Some species may increase their distribution, benefiting from increased prey availability, e.g. the flowery rockcod and barred javelin.
Some species of bony fish are farmed, i.e. grown and harvested in an aquaculture system
9.217 Blood flow in a fish
9.1.17 Class Sarcopterygii, (lobe-finned fishes, coelacanths)
Genus: Latimeria, Species chalumnae, Family Latimeriidae, Class Sarcopterygii, Subphylum Vertebrata, Phylum Chordata
Coelacanth, (Latimeria chalumnae), has muscular lobes in the fins, attached to the appendicular skeleton.
Such fins may have paved the way for the limbs of the first land vertebrates to evolve.
Coelacanths reside at ocean depths of as much as 800 m and female coelacanths may reach up to 2 m long and weigh 110 kg.
9.1.18 Subclass Dipnoi (lungfishes)
Genus Neoceratodus Species forsteri Family Ceratodontidaei Subphylum Vertebrata Phylum Chordata Kingdom Animalia
Australian Lungfish, (Scientific name: Neoceratodus forsteri), can breathe air by coming to the surface when freshwater habitat is stagnant or the quality is low.
The Australian Lungfish has only a single lung, all other species have a pair, and can grow to 1.5 metres in length and 40 kilograms in weight.
It has a long, heavy body with large scales, small eyes, paddle-like pectoral fins and pelvic fins.
It is usually olive-green to brown on the back and sides with some scattered dark blotches, and whitish ventrally.
It occurs naturally in the Burnett and Mary River systems of Queensland, Australia, although it has been introduced into other rivers.
9.1.19 Class Amphibia, (amphibians), (frogs, toads, newts, salamanders)
The three main groups of amphibians are the frogs, salamanders and caecilians, but only the frogs are present in Australia.
Although some Australian frogs have ‘toad’ in their names, there are no ‘true’ toads (i.e. members of the family Bufonidae), native to Australia.
However, one species of true toad, the cane toad,(Rhinella marina), has been introduced to the country. It is now considered to be an invasive species.
Poison secreted by glands in the toad’s skin causes native predators to fall ill after eating the amphibian. The poison is often fatal.
Four families of frogs in Australia: Hylidae (the tree frogs), Microhylidae (the narrow-mouthed frogs). Myobatrachidae (the southern frogs), Ranidae (the true frogs)
9.1.6 Blood flow in a frog (Experiments)
9.1.20 Class Reptilia, reptiles, (snakes, lizards, crocodiles, alligators, turtles, tortoises, tuataras)
Snakes
9.1.13 Snake bite
Turtles
1. Hard-shelled sea turtles
Family Cheloniidae
Loggerhead turtle Carella caretta, Pacific Ridley turtle Lepidochelys olivacea,
Flat back turtle Natator depressus
2. Leathery sea turtle Family Dermochelyidae
Leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea
3. Side-necked freshwater turtles
Long-necked turtles Genus Chelodina, Snapping turtles Genus Elseya
Southern snapping turtle, Elseya albagula, Mary River turtle,
Elusor macrurus, Snake-necked turtle, Chelodina longicollis, Genus Emdura,
Genus Pseudoemdura, Genus Rheodyte, Helmeted turtles
In Australia, a freshwater turtle is popularly known as a "tortoise", but in other countries a tortoise is a domed-shaped terrestrial reptile.
4. Pig-nosed turtle
Family Carettochelydidae, Carettochelys insculpa
5. Red-eared slider
Genus Trachemys, Red-eared slider Trachemys scripta elegans, the most common pet turtle
Geckos
Asian house gecko Hemidactylus frenatus, "the chuck chuck", Flap-footed
lizards, "legless lizards", Family Pygopodidae
Worm lizards, Genus Aprasia
Skinks, Family Scincidae, Blue tongued lizards, Genus Tiliqua, Eastern
Blue tongue lizard Tiliqua scincoides
Bicycle lizards, Genus Amphibolurus
Ctenophorus cristatus crested dragon bicycle lizard, it runs on hind limbs
Moloc horridus, it has thorn-like spines and eats ants
Genus Pogona bearded dragons Monitors, goannas
Family Varanidae, Genus Varanus, Australian lace monitor
Varanus varius uses termites nests to hatch eggs.
9.1.21 Class Aves, birds
Birds (Plastomount, slides), (Modern Teaching Aids), (Commercial).
See Birds Queensland Ornithological Society.
9.4.0 Birds
6.3 Chicken life cycle (Primary)
Chicken project (Agriculture)
Duck project (Agriculture)
9.1.22 Class Mammalia, mammals
Mammals: Monotremes, Marsupials, Placentals.
Mammals are warm-blooded animals that have mammary glands, which produce milk, hair of some form, a single bone on each side of the lower jaw, live birth.
Monotremes, platypus, echidna, lay eggs, so not "live birth".
Marsupials, kangaroos, bandicoots, quolls, koala, give birth to poorly developed young, which are then carried in a pouch.
Placental mammals, (eutherian mammals), rodents, bats, cats, dogs, goats, foxes, rabbits produce well-developed offspring.
Marine mammals, seals, sea lions, whales, dolphins, dugong, cannot breathe underwater, but have developed adaptations to aquatic life.
3.06 Care for cats
3.1.0 Care for goats
4.25 Care for dogs
Goat Project
Pig Project
23.2.18 Rats (pest of cocoa)
9.1.23 Rabbit, Classification of a rabbit
Kingdom: Animalia, Animals
Phylum, (Division): Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family : Leporidae
European rabbit: (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
9.1.24 Class Mammalia, Humans, (mammals)
9.11.0 Human body
Cells Human cheek cells
9.24.0 Human genetics
10.9.8 Human immunodeficiency virus, (HIV)
4.3.21 Human, Micro-organisms and Personal Hygiene
9.0 Human physiology and Health
9.29 Human population growth
10.6.0 Human relationships
10.0 Human reproduction
9.2.0 Archaea, prokaryotes
Archaea, prokaryotes, have no cell nucleus, no mitosis, no meiosis
Archaea, live in hot acid environment and are mostly anaerobic
Methanococcus jannaschii, lives in hydrothermal vents and its genome has been sequenced.
It derives energy from hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis, an ancient form of respiratory metabolism.
4H2 + CO2 --> CH4 + 2H2O
9.3.0 Chromista
Kingdom Chromista have tinsel-type flagella with brush-like extensions.
9.3.1 Class Bacillariophyceae, diatoms
9.3.2 Class Chrysophyceae, (golden-brown algae)
9.3.3 Class Cryptophyceae, (cryptomonads), (Cryptomonas sp.)
9.3.4 Class Dinoflagellata, (dinoflagellates), (Ceratium sp.)
9.3.5 Class Euglenoidea, (euglenids), (Euglena gracilis
9.3.6 Class Haptophyta, (haptophytes), (Tisochrysis lutea)
9.3.7 Class Mycetozoa, (slime moulds)
9.3.8 Class Oomycetes, (water moulds)
9.3.9 Class Phaeophyceae, (brown algae)
9.3.10 Class Raphidophyceae, raphidophytes
9.3.11 Rhodophyta. (red algae)
9.3.12 Class Ulvophyceae, Sea lettuce, (Ulva lactuca).
9.3.13 Yellow-green algae, Class Xanthophyceae,
9.3.14 Class Xanthophyceae, (yellow-green algae)
9.3.1 Class Bacillariophyceae, diatoms
Class Bacillariophyceae, (Bacillariophyta), diatoms, plankton, diatomaceous earth, silica shells (silica cell walls), photosynthesis.
Diatoms are unicellular microscopic algae with a silica wall and occur as plankton and fossil forms, e.g. diatomaceous earth.
The word diatom means "cut in two".
Diatoms occur as single cells, colonies or long colonial chains, are yellow to light brown colour, with cell walls consisting of overlapping silica cells, each like a petri dish, floating freely in the water or clinging to seaweed, crustaceans and whales.
Example species: Actinocyclus, Bacillaria, Bellerochea, Cyclotella, Chaetoceros, Cylindrotheca, Fragilaria, Nitzschia, Phaeodactylum, Skeletonema, Thalassiosira
Didymosphenia geminata, called didymo or rock snot, is invasive causing a mush in freshwater streams.
Melosira granulata is a fossil diatom with radial symmetry.
Navicula species are boat-shaped diatoms that can move over surfaces using a layer of protoplasm.
Odontella aurita is a marine diatom with characteristic unusual shape.
9.3.2 Class Chrysophyceae, (golden-brown algae)
Chrysophyte, an alga of the class Chrysophyceae, has two flagella, a red eyespot, yellow-brown chloroplasts and often silica scales on the outside.
The chrysophyte, (Synura australiensis, is a golden-brown algae containing chloroplasts, found mostly in freshwater., covered in silicate scales and yellow colour.
A group of Synura cells aggregates and assembles into a cluster, with each cell has its two flagella facing outward.
9.3.3 Class Cryptophyceae, (cryptomonads), (Cryptomonas sp.)
The Cryptophyceae are a group of flagellate protists including both photosynthetic and phagotrophic taxa.
The cryptomonad, (Cryptomonas paramecium) has an elongate body, two equal in length flagella, anterior gullet, nucleus, contractile vacuole,
frequently filled with starch grains, rotates while swimming, can also swim backwards, occasionally jumps backwards,
unlike most cryptomonad it is colourless and without chloroplasts.
9.3.4 Class Dinoflagellata, dinoflagellates
Noctiluca scintillans, causes red tide fire in the sea.
Ceratium polysaccharide, wall has horn-like shapes.
Harmful algal blooms (red tides), caused by Karenis brevis and Alexandrium.
Ciguatera disease is caused by eating reef fish infected by Gambeirdiscus toxicus.
Dinoflagellates occur in enormous numbers in the ocean, particularly in tropical waters and display a huge diversity of form.
9.3.5 Class Euglenoidea, (euglenids), (Euglena gracilis)
Phylum: Euglenozoa, Family: Euglenaceae, Genus: Euglena, Species: Euglena gracilis
Euglena, See diagram 9.38: Euglena
Euglena Prepare Euglena culture
Euglena species are single-cell flagellates, which live in water habitats rich in organic matter and may form green or red “blooms” in ponds or lakes.
Euglena has a long flagellum at the anterior of the cell for swimming, chloroplasts surrounded by three membranes, pyrenoid centres of carbon dioxide metabolism, a red eyespot (stigma) for phototaxis, no cell wall, a "pellicle"of proteinaceous strips surrounds the cell, no records of sexual reproduction.
It requires an external supply of vitamin B12.
The species (Euglena sanguinea) produces the alkaloid toxin Euglenophycin, C20H35NO, causing fish kills
The main storage product is paramylon, C18H32O14 and Euglena is produced commercially as a source of paramylon.
9.3.6 Class Haptophyta, (haptophytes)
Haptophyta are planktonic and phototrophic organisms in the worldwide.marine environments and mat form massive blooms and be toxic.
They have a haptonema, which is a third appendage used for attachment and food handling, two similar flagella, two golden-brown chloroplasts,organic body scales.
The haptophyte (Tisochrysis lutea) is rich in docosahexaenoic acid, (DHA), C22H32O2, so is used to prevent obesity and improve lipid and glucose metabolism.
9.3.7 Class Mycetozoa, (slime moulds)
Common Coral Slime, (Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa), plasmodial slime mould, widely distributed on decaying wood, white frost-like growth or thin watery layers,
pillar or wall-like sporangia bud from the plasmodium and develop spores which become flagellated zoospores that will later form new plasmodia.
Ceratiomyxa (Latin ceratus 'waxed', Greek myxa 'mucus'), Eumycetozoa
9.3.8 Class Oomycetes, water moulds
Class Oomycetes, water moulds, biflagellate zoospores, one anterior and one posterior flagellum
Oomycetes, water moulds, downy mildews, not photosynthetic, rusts, egg "fungi", not a fungus. but similar to brown algae.
[Oomycetes is also classified in Kingdom Chromista]
Albugo candida (Cystopus), water mould, white rust
Aphanomyces raphani black root of Raphanus sativus radish,
Bremia lactucae, downy mildew of lettuce
Peronospora cubensis, downy mildew of cucurbits, e.g. cucumber
Phytophthora infestans, late blight of potatoes, potato blight
9.3.9 Brown algae, Class Phaeophyceae
Phaeophyceae, Phaeophytam are mostly marine, seaweeds, rock weed, kelps, brown to yellow-brown filaments, motile cells with two unequal anterior flagella.
Alginates (alginic acid, algin) are produced from brown algae, kelp.
A wrack is a brown algae that, when exposed by the tide, exudes a sticky brown gel to avoid desiccation.
Experiment: Examine filaments under low power, then examine a cell in detail under high power and look for oogonia and antheridia.
Examine a prepared slide showing dwarf males.
Examples: Chondrus, Cladophora, Cutleria, Desmarestia, Dictyota, Ecklonia, Ectocarpus, Fucus, Himantothallus, Hormosira, Laminaria, Macrocystis. Sargassum
9.3.10 Raphidiophytes, Class Raphidophyceae
Raphidophytes are similar to the Phylum Tribophyta, but with a distinctive internal cell structure.
All are unicellular with no cell walls and no eyespot, marine and mostly freshwater, large single cells with no cell walls, two flagella, many chloroplasts.
The marine species may cause non-toxic algal blooms, e.g. Gonyostomum.
Examples: Chattonella, Chloromorum, Gonyostomum, Heterosigma, Psammamonas, Vacuolaria
Rhodophyta Rhodophyta Division
7.8.3 Carrageenans, red seaweed, Rhodophyceae
Carrageenans are mainly marine, as single cells or filaments, are used to make agar, dulse, nori, contain phycocyanin and phycoerythrin in chloroplasts.
Ceratium species colours the upper ocean red.
Gigartina atropurpurea is a giant marine kelp.
Gymnodinium species, causes red tide, "algal bloom".
Noctiluca species causes bioluminescence.
Pyropia species is used for "nori". Japanese food
9.3.12 Class Ulvophyceae, Sea lettuce, (Ulva lactuca)
9.3.13 Yellow-green algae, Class Xanthophyceae,
9.3.14 Class Xanthophyceae, (yellow-green algae)
9.5.0 Heterokontophyta
Heterokontophytes is a group of algae, also known as ochrophytes or stramenochromes.
As of 2024, ochrophytes amount to 23,314 described species, of which the majority are diatoms.
They are the photosynthetic organisms with a cell nucleus, characterized by the presence of two unequal flagella.
They can be single-celled, colonial, coenocytic or multicellular.
All ochrophytes have folds in the mitochondria to increase thr area for cellular respiration.
They are algae, distinguished from other groups of algae by their flagella, chloroplasts and pigments.
They are mostly photosynthetic, but some groups have lost photosynthetic capacity and pigments.
Ochrophyte chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and c as photosynthetic pigments, in addition to fucoxanthin.
Ochrophyte algae accumulate Leucasin, C42H70O12 as a storage product, but they lack starch.
Ochrophytes are present in nearly all environments, including marine habitats, freshwater or soil.
Ochrophytes include brown algae (Phaeophyceae), golden algae (Chrysophyceae), e.g. Hydrurus, and yellow-green algae (Xanthophyceae), e.g. Vaucheria, Tribonema and Bumilleria.
Some diatoms, e.g. Cocconeis, grow attached to the substrate through adhesive films, but Eunotia and Nitzschia grow stalks or colonial tubes.
Uunicellular algae Heterosigma and Chattonella, Raphidophyceae, cause fish mortality.
Gonyostomum mucilage damages fish gills and causes algal blooms.
The diatom Chaetoceros clog fish gills, and Pseudonitzschia produces a neurotoxin to cause shellfish poisoning.
9.6.0 Phytophthora, water mould, Phylum Oomycota.
Phylum Oomycota, Family: Peronosporaceae, Genus: Phytophthora
Phytophthora are not called fungi, because they have cellulose cell walls, whereas fungi have chitin cell walls.
Have diploid chromosomes in non-reproductive stage (fungi haploid cells).
Have hyphae that lack cross walls, coenocytic hyphae and they have two types of flagella.
Phytophthora, brown rot disease of citrus, especially "Washington Navel" orange and lemons, top and root rot of pineapple
Phytophthora citrophthora, collar rot of citrus
Phytophthora nicotianae, phytophthora blight of passionfruit
Phytophthora infestans, causes cocoa black pod
Phytophthora capsici, infects cucumbers and squash
Phytophthora cinnamomi, causes cinnamon root rot affecting hemlock, juniper, eucalypt, banksia
Phytophthora citricola, causes root rot and stem cankers in citrus trees
Phytophthora fragariae, causes red root rot affecting strawberries
Phytophthora infestans, causes potato (late) bligh, the Great Famine of Ireland
Phytophthora megakarya, causes cocoa black pod disease
Phytophthora palmivora, causes fruit rot in coconut and betel nut
Phytophthora sojae, causes soybean root rot
9.7.0 Kingdom Protista, protists
A protista has such simple cellular organism that it is not classified as a plant, animal or fungus.
Most protista are unicellular, and live in water or water soil or are parasitic.
Some Protista are multicellular algae, e.g. kelps - seaweeds without specialized tissues.
All protista have a nucleus, so are eukaryotic.
Protista may be heterotrophic or autotrophic, i.e. chemotrophic or phototrophic.
9.7.1 Phylum Acrasiomycota, slime moulds
9.10.0 Phylum Amoebozoa, (Phylum Rhizopoda)
9.7.3 Phylum Apicomplexa, (parasites), Plasmodium vivax
9.11.0 Ciliophora, (pond dwellers), Paramecium
9.7.5 Phylum Choanozoa, (in sponges)
9.9.0 Phylum Metamonada, (in termites)
9.7.7 Phylum Myxomycota, slime moulds
9.7.8 Phylum Percolozoa
9.7.1 Acrasiomycota, slime moulds
Acrasiomycota, (cellular slime moulds), causes powdery scab on potatoes.
Formerly it was thought to be a fungus hence the "mycota", e.g. Guttulinopsis, Pocheina.
9.7.3 Apicomplexa, Phylum Apicomplexa
Babesia causes Babesiosis,
Plasmodium vivax causes Malaria,
Cryptosporidium in drinking water causes Cryptosporidiosis,
Toxoplasma gondii causes toxoplasmosis.
9.7.7 Phylum Myxomycota, slime moulds
Myxomycota are fungi-like organisms that may move around like an amoeba or a blob called a plasmodium.
They live on decomposing vegetation and they consume bacteria.
They may be seen as creeping and crawling threads of “slime” in their motile stage.
However, as food becomes scarce, these threads come together and form a fruiting body that produces spores.
The fruiting body may be irregular clumps, small balls or regular pin or feather-shaped structures joined together.
Fuligo septica (Dogs vomit) is a slime mould commonly seen on sugar cane mulch.
9.7.8 Phylum Percolozoa
The Percolozoa are a group of colourless, non-photosynthetic protists with a feeding groove.
Many that can transform between amoeboid, flagellate, and cyst stages.
Percolozoa are bacterivores in soil, fresh water and the ocean.
The brain-eating amoeba, (Naegleria fowleri) can cause fatal amoebic meningitis.
9.8.0 Taxons
Taxons are the ranks used in biology classification:
Taxonomic rank: domain kingdom phylum (zoology), (division : botany) class order family genus species
Taxons are based on the Linnean sequence, Carolus Linnaeus 1707-1778, published in "Systema Naturae" in 1735.
A taxon at the rank of Division is the second highest taxonomic classification for the kingdoms Plantae (plants) and fungi.
In biology, Division is between Kingdom level and Class level.
Taxonomy, systematics, is the classification of living and extinct organisms.
(Greek taxis 'arrangement' and nomos 'law')
See: 9.1.23 Classification of a rabbit
See: Bean, Bean, Classification of a common bean
9.9.0 Metamonada, Phylum Metamonada
Metamonada flagellates have no mitochondria
Giardia lamblia causes "beaver fever", in termite guts to assist the breakdown of cellulose.
Trichomonas vaginalis causes trichomoniasis.
Trimastix pyriformis is free-living, has four flagella and consumes bacteria.
9.10.0 Phylum Amoebozoa (Phylum Rhizopoda)
9.10.1 Amoeba proteus
9.10.2 Entamoeba coli, E. coli
9.10.3 Entamoeba histolytica
9.10.1 Amoeba proteus
See diagram 9.38.1: Amoeba
Amoeba proteus is a single cell, aquatic, organism that is constantly changing shape.
The cytoplasm consists of clear jelly-like ectoplasm and granular endoplasm.
A clear rounded area, contractile vacuole, expands and contracts as it collects and expels water to maintain the concentration of the cytoplasm.
A central nucleus controls all the activities.
It moves by forming a pseudopodium (false foot), by the endoplasm flowing into the ectoplasm.
The amoeba flows into the pseudopodium which may be anchored to the substrate by the outer membrane, pellicle or plasma lemma, becoming sticky.
Amoeba feeds on small organisms by flowing around them and enclosing them in a food vacuole, where they are digested.
Reproduction is by simple binary fission, when the amoeba splits into two.
Amoeba avoids dry conditions by forming a spore with an external cyst wall.
Entamoeba species have no contractile vacuole possibly, because the live as parasites in vertebrates.
They have only one or two large blunt pseudopodia.
9.10.2 Entamoeba coli, Phylum Rhizopoda
Entamoeba coli lives in human large intestine, feeding on bacteria and remains of digested food, commensal parasite and is harmless.
It may have up to 8 nuclei when it divides inside a cyst in the faeces.
Infection occurs after ingestion of cysts in fecally-contaminated food or water.
In the small intestine, the cysts break open to release sporozoan trophozoites, which migrate to the large intestine, absorb nutrients, grow and multiply to form cysts.
Do not confuse with:
Escherichia Phylum Proteobacteria,
Escherichia coli (E. coli), the names are similar
Entamoeba histolytica, Phylum Rhizopoda
Entamoeba histolytica, causes amoebic dysentery when it attacks the mucous membrane of the intestine, causing blood in stools and peritonitis.
It may also cause abscesses in the liver.
It has 4 nuclei, but no mitochondria.
Entamoeba histolytica causes about 50 million infections world wide, with a death rate of over 100, 000 annually.
Wheatley trichrome staining of the trophozoites, (growing stage when it is absorbing nutrients from the host), is commonly used for diagnosis of amoebic dysentery
Entamoeba histolytica in microscopic faeces specimens, looks like Entamoeba coli.
3.13.5 Heidenhain iron haematoxylin is used to stain mitotic figures in amoeba, after fixation.
9.11.0 Ciliophora, Phylum Ciliophora
Ciliophora, ciliates (have cilia), Balantidium, Colpoda, Paramecium, Tetrahymena, Vorticella
See diagram 9.3.35: Protozoa.
9.35 Phylum Ciliophora, Succession in a pond community, hay infusion cultures, Protozoa
Flagellate protozoa (formerly a class of phylum Mastigophora)
Phytoflagellates (have chloroplasts)
Zooflagellates (do not have chloroplasts)
Examples: Balantidium, Paramecium, Stentor, Stylonychia, Vorticella
9.12.0 Eucaryota and Prokaryota
Eukaryota, (Greek eu good, and karuon nut)
Eukaryotes have a cell nucleus and nuclear membrane, + organelles, e.g. chromosomes, mitochondria, golgi apparatus.
Eukaryote, Eukaryota, multicellular, cells have nucleus, contain all the animals, plants, fungi, and some unicellular organisms
Most organisms are eukaryotes, except bacteria.
All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes.
Eucaryota:
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Animalia
Prokaryota:
Prokaryotes are unicellular, cell has no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles, no mitochondria.
Prokaryotes contain Bacteria (formerly Eubacteria), and Archaea (formerly Archaebacteria)
"9.1.0.0 Algae
9.3.1 Class Bacillariophyceae, diatoms
9.3.2 Class Chrysophyceae, golden-brown algae
9.3.4 Class Dinoflagellata, dinoflagellates
9.3.5 Class Euglenoidea, Euglena
9.3.6 Class Haptophyta, haptophytes
9.3.8 Class Oomycetes, water moulds
9.3.9 Class Phaeophyceae, brown algae
9.3.10 Class Raphidophyceae, raphidophytes
9.3.12 Class Ulvophyceae, ulvophytes
9.3.13 Class Xanthophyceae, yellow-green algae
Algae
Algae a simple, non-flowering, and typically aquatic plant of a large group that includes the seaweeds and many single-celled forms.
Algae contain chlorophyll, but lack true stems, roots, leaves, and vascular tissue.
Euglenophyta, e.g. Euglena.
Chrysophyta, golden algae.
Pyrrophyta, fire algae, luciferin.
Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta, and Rhodophyta.
Protists
Sacordina (protists that move using pseudopod).
Mastigophora (protists that move using flagella).
Ciliaphora (protists that move using cilia), and Sporozoa (protists that form spores).
As for the plant-like protists (Subkingdom Phycobionta), there are also various phyla: Euglenophyta, Chrysophyta (diatoms), Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates).
Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae), and Rhodophyta (red algae).
The Cyanophyta or blue-green algae, which are prokaryotic organisms, are traditionally included in this group but in modern classification, they are now grouped together with bacteria under Kingdom Monera.
9.10.5 Myxomycota, Phylum Myxomycota
Myxomycota, (acellular or plasmodial or coenocytic slime moulds)
It is a plasmodium, slime fungus, fungus-like slime moulds.
Most Myxomycota are not fungi.
The Class also includes the giant kelps, e.g. Stemonitis, Physarum polycephalum!
9.10.6 Percolozoa, Phylum Percolozoa
9.35 Rotifers, Succession in a pond community, hay infusion cultures
9.10.0 Phylum Mollusca (molluscs)
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
9.6.1 Phylum Annelida, ringed worms, segmented worms
Class Polychaeta, bristle worms, polychaetes (paddle-footed annelids, usually marine swimming worms), Nereis ragworm
Class Polychaeta, Sipuncula (sipunculan worms, peanut worms) (Phylum Sipuncula), Sipunculus, Phascolosoma
Class Polychaeta, Echiura, spoon worms, burrow worms, echiuran worms, (marine), Bonellia green spoonworm
Class Oligochaeta, earthworms, angleworms, Lumbricus common earthworm, Allolobophora green worm, Eisenia red wriggler worms
Class Hirudinea (leeches), Hirudo medical leech
Class Pogonophora (beard worms), Riftia giant tube worm
9.1.6 Earthworm behaviour, Lumbricus
9.6.2 Subphylum Crustacea, crustaceans
Class Malacostraca (crabs, krill, pill bugs, shrimp)
Class Branchiopoda (branchiopods)
Artemia salina (brine shrimp) in inland salt water lakes
Artemia nyos ("Sea-monkey" (toy product)
Order Cladocera (water fleas)
Daphnia pulex
Subclass Cirripedia (barnacles)
Class Ostracoda (ostracods)
Conifers, Coniferophyta Division
The Coniferophyta, or Pinophyta, or Coniferae, commonly known as conifers, are vascular land plants containing a single class, Pinopsida.
Conifers are cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms, perennial woody plants with secondary growth.
Conifers include the pine, fir, spruce, other cone-bearing trees and shrubs, and yews
Coniferophyta, Pinophyta, conifers are seed-bearing plants with ovules on the edge of an open sporophyll.
The sporophylls are arranged in cone-like structures.
Conifers are pyramidal or conical trees with long straight stems that taper to an apical growing point, the leader.
The almost horizontal branches bear narrow needle-shaped leaves.
The original tap root dies leaving shallow roots that let the tree be blown over by storms.
Smaller roots have no root hairs, but have a sheath of fungus that penetrates into the root epidermis.
Small microspore cones at the ends of branches produce microspores, pollen grains.
Large megaspore cones are made up of leaf-like sporophylls that contain the ova.
The fertilized ova develop to form seeds released when the woody cone opens.
Most conifers produce woody cones by lignification of the seed-bearing sporophylls, but Juniperus, Podocarpus and Taxus have soft fruit.
See diagram 9.50: Pine tree cone.
See diagram 9.50.1: Swelling movements.
Experiments
1. Look for a microspore cone, pollen grain, pollen tube, microsporophyll, microspores (pollen) megasporophyll, micropyle, ovule, megaspore, and bract.
2. Examine twigs of Pinus in summer.
The twigs should show evidence of at least three years' growth.
Observe the structure of purely vegetative twigs, the position and structure of seed cones of varying age, the position and structure of staminate cones.
3. Examine the male and female cones of Pinus.
Dig up some shallow roots and examine the mycorrhiza under the microscope.
Dissect first year, second year and third year seed cones and note their general structure.
Note the seeds lying naked on the cone scales.
4. Remove a megasporophyll from a first year cone and look for the two megasporangia (ovules) on the upper surface.
The bract scale is on the lower surface.
5. Examine the structure in longitudinal section under high power.
6. Examine a sporophyll from a second year cone in the same way.
7. Examine a third year cone.
Remove a megasporophyll and note the seeds with their wings attached.
Cut a longitudinal section through a seed and examine under low power.
8. Dissect a staminate cone and note the form of the microsporophylls (stamens).
Crush one of them into a drop of glycerine and examine the pollen grains under high power.
Examine transverse and longitudinal sections of staminate cones.
9. Examine the structure of the current year stem and the older stems by means of transverse and longitudinal sections.
Examine the tracheids, the sieve tubes, the medullary rays and the resin canals.
10. Cut a transverse section of a leaf.
9.11.1
Marchantiophyta Experiments
1. Collect plants from moist sheltered places, e.g. behind waterfalls, in cooler periods of the year.
2. Collect plants of Pellia in the early spring.
Observe the leafy gametophyte with rhizoids at its base and the capsule or sporogonium.
Note the presence of dark green globular capsules just behind the growing points of some thallus branches.
Also, note small warty prominences further back from the tip and either side of the midrib.
These prominences are old antheridia cavities, now empty.
Dissect out a sporogonium, noting the short seta.
Crush the capsule into a drop of water.
Observe the wall with its characteristic thickenings, the spores and the elaters.
Cut a transverse section of the thallus, mount in water and note the structure, similar to the lamina of Fucus, but attached to the soil, with hair-like rhizoids.
3. Collect Pellia plants in the early summer.
Observe the presence of antheridia and cut sections through the thallus where they occur.
Note also involucres just behind the tips of some branches and cut longitudinal sections through these to see the archegonia.
Look for the thallus, gemma cups, rhizoids, sperm with two flagella, male thallus, antheridium, female thallus, and archegonium.
Liverworts are the most lowly land plants with single-celled rhizoids and no clearly-differentiated stem and leaves.
They grow in moist shady habitats on wet rocks or near shallow streams, usually clumped together to save moisture.
The plant is the gametophyte generation, a broad branching thallus.
Together the plants look like little leaves clumped together and attached to the damp soil by hair-like rhizoids.
The antheridia produce swimming sperm that fertilize an ovum in the archegonium to form the zygote that grows into the sporophyte.
The sporophyte has no chlorophyll and remains a sort of parasite with no connection to the soil, but attached to the archegonium.
It releases spores that develop into the next gametophyte generation.
Marchantia reproduces rapidly by vegetative buds produced in gemma cups.
The sexual organs, the antheridia and archegonia are formed on different plants.
Collect plants from moist sheltered places, e.g. behind waterfalls, in cooler periods of the year.
9.2.5 Moss experiments
1. Examine capsules of Funaria or other mosses at different stages of maturity and note the peristome and the method of liberation of spores.
If you fix a cut off capsule in wax, you can examine the peristome under low power.
Breath on the capsule to show the hygroscopic movements of the peristome teeth.
2. Collect protonema of Polytrichum from hedgerows or on the soil in flower pots.
Polytrichum spores germinate to form a filamentous stage called a protonema.
Later, buds form on the protonema to grow into the moss plant.
Polytrichum often mingles with Vaucheria, but Polytrichum is septate.
Observe the green filaments with transverse septa and the brownish rhizoids with oblique septa.
Observe buds on the green filaments and young plants in various stages of development.
3. Look for the male and female plant, female plant with attached sporogonium, leaves, stem, rhizoids, sporogonium capsule, sporogonium seta.
4. Collect common woodland mosses usually found in compact colonies or cushions in damp shady places.
Some grow on the damper side or south side of tree trunks and fence posts.
Observe the erect stems, small leaves, and the rhizoids that attach the plant to the soil.
Look for terminal cups, sexual organs, and tubular capsules that contain asexual spores.
Some tufts of plants bear rosette-like antheridia cups containing spores.
Note the structure of the antheridia and paraphyses, sterile hairs or filaments that bear the spore-making structures, the sporangia.
The archegonia cups that house the ovum are less conspicuous, so you may have to dissect more than one apex to find an archegonium.
5. Use four areas of activity: 1. field observations, 2. spore culture, 3. cultivation of gametophytes, 4. investigation of spore and leafy gametophyte growth to
study the times of spore discharge, growth of the protonema, leafy gametophyte production, sex organ production (archegonia and
antheridia),
fertilization, growth of sporophyte, relative importance of reproduction by spores or gemmae and tubers.
Use information on local temperatures, day length, rainfall, to relate to observations of life cycles.
6. The upper part of the moss capsule (sporangium) may be specialized for gradual spore discharge.
The life cycle of moss begins with asexual reproduction.
Leaf-like moss grow thin, brown stalk with capsules at the top.
The capsules contain tiny spores instead of sex cells.
Spores are the cells that can develop into a new individual without fertilization.
Mosses reproduce by means of spores which are dispersed from the mouth of the capsule by the numerous rays (orange and brown), that snap open.
Grow moss spores and study which factors of the environment controls germination, growth, differentiation of leafy gametophytes.
Mature spore filled capsules are mostly available in the latter half of the year in the Southern Hemisphere.
A problem is how to count the numbers of spores per capsule, per culture, or the number of leafy gametophytes that form.
Leafy gametophytes grow from the protonema.
Clubmoss, Lycopodiophyta Division
Kingdom: Plantae
Marchantiophyta (liverworts)
Bryophyta (mosses)
Anthocerotophyta (hornworts)
Tracheophyta (vascular plants)
Selaginella experiments
See diagram 9.49: Selaginella.
1. Look for the Selaginella plant, cone, scale leaves, lateral leaves, rhizophores.
Observe the microsporangia containing many microspores, and megasporangium containing four megaspores.
The Clubmoss have club-shaped cones that bear spores and are known as "fern allies".
Plants of the Selaginella genus, spikemoss, are small prostrate plants with four rows of small leaves on the axis.
They live in damp places.
Selaginella kraussiana and Selaginella martensii are grown in greenhouses.
The Selaginella plant is a sporophyte bearing microsporangia and megasporangia in the same cone.
A microsporangium produces microspores to be dropped onto damp soil and later eject a swimming sperm.
The larger megasporangium produces megaspores to be dropped onto the soil, germinate in rainy weather, and produce a female prothallus with an ovum inside.
The ovum is fertilized by the sperm to form a zygote that grows into the next sporophyte generation.
Both types of spores have a tri-radiate ridge from origin in the tetrads following meiosis.
Experiments
1. Collect the microspores and megaspores from a ripe cone and scatter the spores on moist absorbent paper.
Observe the development of young sporophytes.
2. In Lycopodium note the presence of definite cones.
Examine the sporangia, both externally and by cutting sections of the cones.
Ferns experiments
See diagram 9.48.0: Dryopteris.
See diagram 9.48.2: Pteridium, bracken fern.
See diagram 9.48.3: Pteridium prothallus, sporophyte.
See diagram 9.48.4: Fern life cycle.
Ferns are vascular plants with xylem and phloem, true leaves, but no seeds.
Hygrometrica, Clubmoss, They are mostly terrestrial, but Marsilea lives in swamps.
The stag's horn is a common epiphyte in rainforests.
The asexual phase, the sporophyte, is the large fern that develops spores in sporangia.
The sexual phase, the gametophyte, develops the sexual organs.
It is an insignificant little plant like a little flat leaf, the size of a fingernail.
Experiments
1. Examine Dryopteris, wood fern.
Note the rhizome and adventitious roots, stem and compound leaves, fronds.
Note the sori (singular: sorus) under the recurved fronds where spores are formed.
Dryopteris has rounded sori.
Pteridium has long sori along the margins of the pinnules.
Look for the sori under a leaf, compound leaf or frond, coiled young leaf, rhizome, and roots.
2. Cut a transverse section of a pinnule of Dryopteris to pass through a sorus.
Observe the tissues of the leaf, the placenta, sporangia in various stages of development in the indusium.
3. Dehiscence of fern sporangia Pteridium
Scrape some ripe sporangia into a drop of glycerine on a slide.
The glycerine withdraws water from the annulus cells and thus causes the opening of the sporangia.
You can slow the movements of the annulus with glycerine.
Scrape other sporangia on to a warm slide and observe the annulus movements under the microscope.
4. Fern prothallus Pteridium
To grow fern prothalli, place a soaked flower pot inside a larger one, packing the space between with wet sphagnum or peat.
Allow a mature frond bearing a sorus to dry on a piece of paper and then scatter the spores so obtained on the inner surface of the small flower pot.
Stand the pots in an inch or so of water and cover the top of the pots with a sheet of glass.
Green prothalli will soon appear, and you can observe successive stages in their development.
Observe the archegonia and the liberation of sperms from the antheridia.
Young sporophytes will develop if you water the prothalli after they show archegonia.
Ascophyllum, Family Fucaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
Ascophyllum nodosum, only species in genus Ascophyllum, rockweed, knotted kelp, Norwegian kelp, knotted wrack, egg wrack,
cold water seaweed, (garden fertilizer), Fucaceae, North Atlantic Ocean.
Dried herb sold as "frond powder" and "flakes".
Cutleria, Family Cutleriaceae, Class Phaeophyceae, Cutleria multifida, has 48 chromosomes.
Desmarestia, Family Desmarestiaceae, Class Phaeophyceae, Desmarestia ligulata, colour changer, flattened weed, sea sorrel
Dictyota, Family Dictyotaceae, Class Phaeophyceae, doubling weed, in Florida rapid asexual reproduction from fragments
Dictyota binghamiae, mermaid's glove, up to 40 m length
Durvillaea, Family Durvillaeaceae, Class Phaeophyceae, southern bull kelp, prolific growth, used as garden fertilizer
Composting Liquid Seaweed, Tasmanian bull kelp
Durvillaea antarctica and Durvillaea poha, buoyant fronds holds air so may drift long distances
Ecklonia, Family Lessoniaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
9.1.6 Ecklonia
Ectocarpus, Family Ectocarpaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
Leather kelp, (Ectocarpus silicosis), hair-like, found everywhere, Ectocarpaceae
Toothed wrack, (Fucus serratus), serrated wrack, olive-brown, dichotomous branching, discoid holdfast, north Atlantic Ocean, Fucaceae
Spiral wrack, (Fucus spiralis), intertidal brown seaweed, can tolerate desiccation on upper shore, Europe, Fucaceae
Bladder wrack, (Fucus vesiculosus), kelp, seaweed with buoyancy bladders, chlorophyll yellow fucoxanthin , herbal medicine, Algae, Fucaceae
Dried herb sold as seaweed frond pieces.
Fucus species, Family Fucaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
9.1.7 Neptune's necklace, (Hormosira banksii), Phaeophyceae
Oarweed, (Laminaria digitata), kombu, kelp horsetail, laminarin, laminaran, harvested offshore for making alginic acid used in cosmetics, fertiliser,
extract potash and of iodine, traditional medicine abortifacient, inducing labour, Europe, Morocco, Family Laminariaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
Dried herb sold as frond powder.
Ma-konbu, (Laminaria japonica), widely harvested edible seaweed, the original source of MSG, monosodium glutamate, ajinomoto, C5H8NNaO4
Monosodium glutamate MSG 16.3.2.9 Phycocolloids, Polysaccharide gums. China, Japan, Korea, Laminariaceae
Giant kelp, (Macrocystis pyrifera), kelp forests alginates algin used to thicken ice cream, edible, North America, Laminariaceae
Bull kelp, (Nereocystis luetkeana), bladder wrack, up to 36 m, north-east coast of North America, Laminariaceae
Sargassum species in Sargasso Sea, Sargassaceae
Brown forking weed, (Bifurcaria bifurcata), occurs in Atlantic coast rock pools, Sargassaceae
Wakame, (Undaria pinnatifida), miyeok, Asian kelp, large brown edible seaweed, used in miso soup, invasive, Alaeiaceae,