School Science Lessons
Biology
2025-10-27
(UNBiolDiversity)
Table 1.1.1
9.1.0.0 Algae
9.11.0 Ciliophora
 9.1.0H Kingdom Animalia
 9.7.0 Protista
9.10.1 Amoeba
 9.3.2 Closterium
 9.3.0 Kingdom Chromista
 9.1.1 Protozoa
9.1.19 Amphibia
 9.1.7 Crustaceans
 9.7.0 Kingdom Protista
 9.1.23 Rabbit classification
9.1.0 Animal kingdom
 9.3.3 Cryptophyceae
 9.1.22 Mammalia
 9.1.20 Reptilia
9.1.6 Annelida
 9.1.7.1 Daphnia
 9.9.0 Metamonada
 9.3.10 Raphidophyceae
9.9.1 Ants
 9.3.4 Dinoflagellates
 9.1.8 Mollusca
 9.3.11 Rhodophyta
9.1.7 Arthropoda
 9.1.18 Dipnoi
 9.9.2.0 Mosquito
 9.1.17 Sarcopterygii
9.1.21 Aves
 9.9.1.0 Diptera
 9.3.7 Mycetozoa
 9.8.0 Taxons
9.3.1 Bacillariophyceae
 9.1.7.2 Drosophila
 9.1.7 Myriapoda
 9.1.12 Urochordata
9.3.9 Brown algae
 9.1.6 Earthworms
 9.1.5 Nematoda
 9.1.13 Vertebrata
9.1.3 Coelenterata
 9.1.9 Echinoderms
 9.3.8Oomycetes
 9.9.6 Wolbachia bacteria
9.1.15 Chondrichthes
 9.10.2 Entamoeba
 9.1.16 Osteichthyes
 9.1.14 Agnatha
9.1.10 Chordata
 9.12.0 Eucaryota
 9.3.9 Phaeophyceae
 9.10.2 (Entamoeba coli)
9.3.0 Chromista
 9.3.5 Euglena gracilis
 9.6.0 Phytophthora
 (Entamoeba histolytica)
9.3.2 Chrysophyceae
 9.1.11 Hemichordata
 9.1.4 Platyhelminthes
 -
9.11.0 Ciliates
 9.5.0 Heterokontophyta
 9.1.2 Porifera
 -

9.1.0 Animal kingdom
9.1.0 Animals
2.0 Animals (Primary)
4.1.1 Animal tissue culture, Safety in school science

9.1.1 Phylum Protozoa
See diagram 9.3.35: Protozoa.
The term protozoa has been abandoned by scientists in favour of the term protist meaning any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant, or fungus.
Protists do not form a natural group, but are a paraphyletic assemblage of similar-appearing. but diverse taxa, said to be members of the Kingdom Protista.
9.7.0 Kingdom Protista (protists)
The old classification of Phylum protozoa:
Protozoa are single-celled (unicellular), but may be colonial if no division of functions.
Gas exchange and excretion is by diffusion.
Osmoregulation in freshwater forms is by a contractile vacuole.
Asexual reproduction is by binary fission and sometimes sexual reproduction by conjugation occurs.
1. Class Rhizopoda, move by pseudopodia, feed by phagocytosis
9.10.0 Phylum Amoebozoa, (Phylum Rhizopoda)
2. Class Mastigophora, move by flagella and feed by direct absorption
9.3.5 Class Euglenoidea, Euglena
3. Class Ciliophora, move by cilia and feed by phagocytosis through a "mouth" part of the cell
9.11.0 Phylum Ciliophora, ciliate, Paramecium
4. Class Sporozoa, parasitic so no obvious method of locomotion, feed by direct absorption from the host
9.7.3 Phylum Apicomplexa, (parasites), Plasmodium vivax
9.1.11 Protozoan diseases
9.1.11 Protozoan diseases
9.1.9 Succession in a pond community, hay infusion cultures, Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium
9.1.2 Phylum Porifera
Phylum Porifera, (sponges)
Porifera, (Latinporus 'pore', andferre, 'to bear') Phylum Porifera species are mostly marine in tidal zones attached to submerged rocks. body of two layers, water enters in the body through many pores into the central body cavity, skeleton composed of collagen sponge and calcium carbonate or silica, filter feeders.
9.1.3 Phylum Coelenterata
Phylum Coelenterata (Phylum Ctenophora, comb jellies, Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, sea anemones)
Classification of Coelenterata
(Nowadays, taxonomists use the following phyla instead of Phylum Coelenterata: Phylum Ctenophora, comb jellies, Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, sea anemones)
Phylum Coelenterata, (Greekkoilos 'hollow',énteron, 'intestine'), are mostly marine colonial organisms, with two cell layers, ectoderm and endoderm, separated by jelly-like mesogloea, have radial symmetry, hollow cup-like body (enteron cavity), with only one entrance, tentacles around the mouth, independent stinging cells not connected to the network nervous system.
Coelenterata have two body forms:
The hydroid form is a sedentary polyp.
The medusa form is a plankton jellyfish-like organism.
1. Class Hydrozoa, have polyp and medusa forms in the life cycle Order Hydrida
e.g. Hydra, is one of the few freshwater species
See diagram 9.37.4 Hydra.
Obelia forms a colony of hollow tubes attached to seaweed with polyp heads, hydranths, specialized either for feeding or for reproducing by medusa buds.
See diagram 9.37.7 Obelia.
Order Siphonophora, marine pelagic with apical float, pneumatophore e.g. Physalia, "Portuguese man-of-war"
See diagram 9.37.6 Physalia, "Portuguese man-of-war".
In Australia, it is commonly called a "bluebottle", where the dactylozoids detach in the water off the surfing beaches and surfers are stung by the nematocysts.
2. Class Scyphozoa, jellyfish, medusa form is the main stage in the life cycle, e.g. Aurelia
See diagram 9.37.5 Aurelia jellyfish.
The "jellyfish", which may be classified as Phylum Cnidaria, subphylum Medusozoa, refers only to the medusa phase of the life cycle.
Some aquariums use the term "sea jellies"instead of "jellyfish", because it is not a "fish".
3. Class Anthozoa (Actinozoa), only the polyp stage in the life cycle, Order Alcyonaria, corals,
e.g. Red coral, Corallium rubrum, Order Zoantharia
9.1.4 Phylum Platyhelminthes
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
9.1.7 Flatworms, Dugesia, Planaria
9.1.8H Fluke diseases, trematode diseases, Class Trematoda
9.1.12HTapeworm diseases, Class Cestoda
Classification of Platyhelminthes
Many Platyhelminthes are parasites of humans and other animals.
To control these parasites, their life cycle can be broken by killing the hosts or parasites in the host, thoroughly cooking food that contain parasites, and sanitary disposal of human and animal wastes.
Make sure that children wash their hands thoroughly after handling cats and dogs.
Platyhelminthes have a dorsiventrally-flattened body (flattened from above), bilateral symmetry (head, tail, left and right sides), three cell layers: (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm), but no body cavity.
Both sex organs are present in the one organism (hermaphrodite).
They have a primitive brain and paired ventral nerve cords.
The three classes of platyhelminthes are as follows:
1. Class Turbellaria, planarians, are free-living flatworms with simple anterior eyes and can replace lost body parts (regeneration).
They move with cilia and rhythmical muscle contraction to scavenge detritus.
2. Class Trematoda, flukes, have a complex attaching devices of suckers and sometimes hooks.
They attach themselves to the interior of the host and suck in blood and mucus with a muscular pharynx.
Cat liver fluke (Opisthorchiasis felineus)
Chinese liver fluke (Clonorchis sinensis)
Lung fluke (Paragonimus westermani)
Schistosoma fluke (Schistosoma mansoni, S. japonicum), bilharzia, schistosomiasis disease, infection by skin penetration, parasite in freshwater snails
Sheep liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica)
See diagram 9.37.1: Fasciola hepatica.
3. Class Cestoda, tapeworms, attach to the gut wall of host by an attaching device (scolex) with hooks and suckers.
The body is divided into segments (proglottids) that are continually produced behind the scolex.
They remain attached to the interior of the hosts digestive system and absorb the pre digested food.
Pork tapeworm (Taenia solium), infection from eating undercooked pork
See diagram 9.37.2: Taenia solium.
Hydatid tapeworm (Echinococcus granulosis), infection from faeces in dog fur
See diagram 9.37.3: Life cycle of Echinococcus granulosis.
Cat tapeworm (Dipylidium caninum), infection from ingestion of cat flea.
9.1.5 Phylum Nematoda
Phylum Nematoda (nematodes, roundworms, pinworms, threadworms, hookworms)
Ascaris lumbricoides (human intestinal roundworm)
Slide – Echinococcus Granulosus of Entire Worm, MTA, (Commercial).
See diagram 9.37.9: Rhabditis mature female.
9.1.10H Nematode diseases
9.1.6 Phylum Annelida
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms), annelids
9.6.1 Phylum Annelida (segmented worms, ringed worms)
9.14.7 Worm farms
Annelids, soft cylindrical bodies, segmented, bilaterally symmetrical, blood vessels, bristles (chaetae), gametes, paired ventral nerve cords
The main body cavity (coelom) is surrounded by mesoderm with ducts to exterior to carry wastes, (filtered by nephridia).
Class Polychaeta, mostly marine, move by undulations and parapodia bearing many chaetae, separate sexes, free-swimming larva, distinct head.
Class Oligochaeta, terrestrial burrowing, digest garden detritus, move by peristalsis ripples, few chaetae, hermaphrodite, eggs laid in cocoons, no larva
See diagram 9.37.8 TS (Lumbricus terrestris).
Class Hirudinea, leeches, suck blood, use anticoagulant, segments divided into rings, no chaetae or parapodia, hermaphrodite, eggs laid in cocoons, no larva.
9.1.7 Phylum Arthropoda
9.1.4 Arthropod parasitic diseases
Subphylum: Chelicerata Class: Arachnida, arachnids, horseshoe crabs, sea scorpions, harvestmen, camel spiders, mites, ticks, whipscorpions, scorpions, vinegaroons, spiders,
over 110,000 species including 51,000 spiders, mostly terrestrial, body divided into cephalothorax and abdomen, eight legs attached to the cephalothorax,
first pair of legs, chelicerae, for feeding and defence, second pair of legs for feeding, locomotion, reproduction, pair of pinchers in scorpions, mites larva 6 legs
Acaricides
Subphylum Myriapoda, (myriapods) segmented body, a pair of antennae, spiracles, millipedes, centipedes)
House Centipede, (Allothereua maculata), (Greekmurias 'ten thousand',pod 'foot')
Subphylum Crustacea, crustacean
Class Branchiopoda, brine shrimps, water flea (Daphnia)
Class Cephalocarida, horseshoe shrimps
Class Copepoda, copepods, fish lice
Class Malacostraca, crayfish, prawn, crabs, krill, lobsters, crayfish, crabs, shrimps
Class Maxillopoda, copepod, barnacle
Class Ostrocoda, seed shrimps
Subphylum Hexopoda,(insects)
Class Insecta
Orders of insects
Order Anoplura, sucking lice
Order Aptera, wingless, fleas, silverfish
Order Coleoptera, forewings fully hardened), weevils, scarabs, chafers, dung beetles, longicorn beetles, jewel beetles
Order Diptera, two‑winged, flying wings and 'halteres' for balance, mosquitoes, midges, sand flies, blowflies house fly
Order Ephemoptera, smaller membranous hindwings, held upright at rest and often pressed together, mayflies
Order Hemiptera, forewings partly hardened, sucking mouthparts, aphids, hoppers, scale insects, cicadas, water striders, bed bugs
Order Hymenoptera, two pairs of membranous wings, body has distinct waist, ants, wasps, bees, sawflies, vinegar fly
Order Lepidoptera, scaly wings, butterflies, moths
Order Megaloptera, alderflies, dobsonflies
Order Neuroptera, main veins in the wings, net-winged, lacewings, mantid flies, antlions
Order Odonata, at rest spread wings out to the side, dragonflies, damselflies
Order Plecoptera, stoneflies
Order Trichoptera, caddisflies

9.5.0 Insects
9.9.1 Ants
Bees
5.0 Prepare insect-fixing solutions
Insect fixing solutions, Prepare
Insects Insect pests (websites)
Insect repellents
4.5 Insecticides
4.9 KAA, insect fixing fluid
9.5.0 Insects
9.1.7 Phylum Arthropoda (crustaceans, insects, spiders, mites)
9.1.7.1 Daphnia
Water-Fleas, (Genus daphnia), iNaturalistAu
Daphnia, LiveFishFood, Australia
9.1.3 Community of aquatic organisms (See 5.)
18.7.4 Effect of household detergents on freshwater organisms
9.1.5 Stain living Daphnia
16.5.9 Tests for the toxic effect of drugs on water fleas
9.1.7.2 Drosophila
Fruit fly, (Drosophila melanogaster), vinegar fly, deposits eggs on rotting ripe fruit.
The species has its origins in the woodlands of south-central Africa, where it relied heavily on the marula fruit, Sclerocarya birreaica.
The “true” fruit flies, tephritid flies, are larger and more colourful and attack fruit before it rots.
Drosophila flies may be abundant in wineries, stone fruit orchards and banana plantations during harvest.
They are small, easy to feed, have a very quick life cycle and can produce hundreds of offspring.
The Drosophila life cycle lasts approximately 10 days at 25°Cm and a single fertile female can lay hundreds of eggs.
Drosophila embryogenesis lasts approximately 24 hours.
Drosophila melanogaster that genes were found to be bundled up in chromosomes, when its genome was sequenced in the 1990s.
Fruit flies have been crucial in mapping the molecular interactions involved in allowing cells to migrate and stitch together to repair tissue damage.
Drosophila melanogaster has contributed directly to disease control.
Wolbachia bacteria, isolated from this species, are used to suppress the transmission of dengue disease and other human viral diseases transmitted by mosquitoes.
A strain of Wolbachia living inside the tissues of fruit flies and passed from mother to offspring was transferred through microinjection to Aedes mosquitoes.
The Wolbachia bacteria interact with viruses in such a way as to prevent viral build-up in the salivary gland of the mosquitoes.
9.6.0 Drosophila experiments, Mendel's laws
9.9.2.0 Order Diptera, mosquito
9.9.1 Ants
Ant Farm, (Commercial).
3.01 Ants life cycle (Primary)
9.2.0 Ants
9.9.1.0 Order Diptera
(true flies, two-winged flies, bee flies, blow flies, blue bottles, bot flies, crane flies, daddy long legs, fruit flies, gall midges, gnats,
house flies, hover flies, midges, moth flies, sand flies, tsetse flies, vinegar flies)
Suborder Brachycera (circular-seamed flies, muscoid flies, short-horned flies)
Family Drosophilidae (pomace flies, small fruit flies, vinegar flies)
(Drosophila melanogaster) (common fruit fly)
9.9.2.0 Order Diptera, Mosquito
Suborder Nematocera (long-horned flies)
Family Culicidae (mosquitoes)
(Anopheles gambiae) (South American mosquito)
(Culex tarsalis) (North American mosquito)
(Aedes notoscriptus), "backyard mosquito", Australia
(Aedes vigilax), salt marsh mosquito, Australia
3.02 Mosquito life cycle
9.9.5 Mosquito sprays, insecticides, repellents
32.1.2.1 Mosquito bite clicker, Piezoelectricity (See: 4.)

9.9.5 Mosquito sprays
DDT
Garlic spray
Malathion Maldison
Methoxychlor
Methoprene C19H34O3
Bti insecticide (Bacillus thuringiensis)_
9.9.5. Mosquito sprays, insecticides, repellents
9.9.6 Wolbachia bacteria, sterilized mosquito trial
Mosquito repellents:
*DEET
* Allethrin, C19H26O3, Bioallethrin, is a mixture of two allethrin isomers, a synthetic pyrethroid, with low mammalian toxicity.
* Oil of citronella, from (Cymbopogon winterianus) or (Cymbopogon nardus) is used for its aromatic properties, and as an insect repellant.

9.9.6 Wolbachia bacteria
Sterilized mosquito trial
This breakthrough could support the suppression and potential eradication of Aedes aegypti worldwide.
The landmark trial involved releasing three million male Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in Northern Queensland, sterilised Wolbachia bacteria.
The sterile male insects search out and mate with wild females, preventing the production of offspring.
Scientists returned the following year and found one of the trial sites, Mourilyan in Queensland, was almost devoid of mosquitoes.
CSIRO scientist Professor Nigel Beebe, said the trial demonstrates this technique is capable of effectively suppressing mosquito populations.
“During the trial, we saw over 80 % of the mosquito population suppressed across our three trial sites.
The following year, the suppression was still in effect, with 97 % reduction of Aedes aegypti.
One year on, the mosquito population at the second trial site remained substantially suppressed, while the population fully recovered at the third site.
The technique can also be used to remove the virus-transmitting Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, in the Torres Strait Islands.
9.1.8 Phylum Mollusca, (molluscs)
Molluscs have an unsegmented, soft body, a muscular foot or tentacles, a mantle that can secrete a shell, a radula (tongue with teeth).
Molluscs can be found in marine, terrestrial and freshwater environments, and most molluscs are snails and slugs.
Natural pearls are formed when a small, foreign object gets stuck inside an oyster.
Class Gastropoda, (gastropods), snails, slugs abalone, limpets, conch shells, nudibranchs.
Class Bivalvia, (bivalves), clams, oysters, scallops, mussels.
Class Polyplacophora, chitons, eight overlapping plates, live attached to rocks in tidal areas, use radula to scrape off algae.
Class Cephalopoda, (cephalopods), squid, octopuses, cuttlefish, nautiluses.
Class Scaphopoda, (scaphopods), tusk shells, curved tooth-like, open-ended shells, live in marine sand and mud.
Class Aplacophora,  spicule worms, look like worms with spicules in skin instead of a shell, live in deep-water habitats.
5.4 Shellfish, molluscs (Primary)
9.1.9 Phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms)
Echinoderms have basic adult parts in fives, calcite skeleton, hydraulic tube feet or a water-vascular system.
They occur mainly in shallow coastal or reef waters.
Class Asteroidea, (asteroids), starfish or sea stars
Class Crinoidea, (crinoids), feather stars and sea lilies
Class Ophiuroidea, (ophiuroids), brittle stars and basket stars
Class Echinoideasea, (echinoids), sea urchins, heart urchins and sand dollars
Class Holothuroidea, (holothuroids), sea cucumbers, trepang or bêche de mer
Crown-of-Thorns starfish, (Acanthaster planci), huge increase in numbers and destructive effects on the corals of Australian Great Barrier Reef.
9.1.10 Chordata, chordates, Phylum Chordata
Chordates have a nerve cord along the back of the body, and a 'notochord' or firm rod of cells beneath the nerve cord.
gill slits, (not in some chordates, but were present during evolutionary development)
9.1.11 Phylum Hemichordata (hemichordates)
Hemichordata, Biodiversity
9.1.12 Subphylum Urochordata (sea squirts, tunicates)
Ascidians have a primitive backbone at some stage of their life cycle, most are hermaphrodites and reproduce by external fertilisation.
Their free-swimming larva, ascidian tadpoles, secrete slime and attach themselves to a rock surface head-first, and then absorb their tail.
Adult ascidians are unable to move around and filter food particles from the water by pumping water in one siphon and out the other.
Ascidians are called "sea squirts", because they squirt jet of water if trodden on when they are uncovered at low tide.
9.1.13 Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates)
Vertebrates have a vertebral column, bony vertebrae separated by mobile discs, developed from the notochord.
9.1.14 Class Agnatha, Petromyzontida, jawless fish
Cyclostomi (hagfish and lampreys)
Agnathans are the oldest fossils with a skull but no jaws.
Hagfish have no scales, weak eyes under skin, and live deep in the ocean.
Lampreys, lamprey eels, parasitic on river and lake fish, two eyes and two primitive eyes, fishing pest, but good to eat and cook to make jellied eels.
Superclass Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
9.1.15 Class Chondrichthes, (cartilaginous fish), elasmobranchs, (sharks, dogfish, stingrays)
Chondrichthyes (Greekkhóndros 'cartilage' andikhthús 'fish'), jawed fish, which all have skeletons primarily composed of cartilage.
Chondrichthyes are aquatic vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, placoid scales, conus arteriosus in the heart, and no opercula and swim bladders.
Subclass Elasmobranchii contain the sharks, rays, skates and sawfish.
Subclass Holocephali contain the chimaeras, ghost sharks
Size of elasmobranks is from 10 cm, finless sleeper ray, to the over 10 m, whale shark.
9.1.16 Class Osteichthyes, (bony fish, "fish")
Osteichthyes or bony fish, which have skeletons primarily composed of bone tissue.
Since 2019, understanding of how species composition of fish assemblages varies with changing habitat and environmental conditions has advanced.
The range of suitable habitat for some important fishery species will substantially reduce, e.g. red throat emperor, dusky flathead and blue threadfin salmon.
Some species may increase their distribution, benefiting from increased prey availability, e.g. the flowery rock cod and barred javelin.
Some species of bony fish are farmed, i.e. grown and harvested in an aquaculture system 9.217 Blood flow in a fish
9.1.17 Class Sarcopterygii, (lobe-finned fishes, coelacanths)
Genus: Latimeria, Species chalumnae, Family Latimeriidae, Class Sarcopterygii, Subphylum Vertebrata, Phylum Chordata
Coelacanth, (Latimeria chalumnae), has muscular lobes in the fins, attached to the appendicular skeleton.
Such fins may have paved the way for the limbs of the first land vertebrates to evolve.
Coelacanths reside at ocean depths of as much as 800 m and female coelacanths may reach up to 2 m long and weigh 110 kg.
9.1.18 Subclass Dipnoi (lungfishes)
Genus Neoceratodus Species forsteri Family Ceratodontidaei Subphylum Vertebrata Phylum Chordata Kingdom Animalia
Australian Lungfish, (Neoceratodus forsteri), can breathe air by coming to the surface when freshwater habitat is stagnant or the quality is low.
The Australian Lungfish has only a single lung, all other species have a pair, and can grow to 1.5 metres in length and 40 kilograms in weight.
It has a long, heavy body with large scales, small eyes, paddle-like pectoral fins and pelvic fins.
It is usually olive-green to brown on the back and sides with some scattered dark blotches, and whitish ventrally.
It occurs naturally in the Burnett and Mary River systems of Queensland, Australia, although it has been introduced into other rivers.
9.1.19 Class Amphibia, (amphibians), (frogs, toads, newts, salamanders)
The three main groups of amphibians are the frogs, salamanders and caecilians, but only the frogs are present in Australia.
Although some Australian frogs have ‘toad’ in their names, there are no ‘true’ toads (i.e. members of the family Bufonidae), native to Australia.
However, one species of true toad, the Cane toad,(Rhinella marina), has been introduced to the country.
It is now considered to be an invasive species.
Poison secreted by glands in the toad’s skin causes native predators to fall ill after eating the amphibian.
The poison is often fatal.
Four families of frogs in Australia:
1. Hylidae (tree frogs), 2. Microhylidae (narrow-mouthed frogs). 3. Myobatrachidae (southern frogs), 4. Ranidae (true frogs)
9.1.6 Blood flow in a frog (Experiments)
9.1.20 Class Reptilia
Class Reptilia, reptiles, (snakes, lizards, crocodiles, alligators, turtles, tortoises, tuataras)
Snakes
9.1.13 Snake bite
Turtles
1. Hard-shelled sea turtles
Family Cheloniidae
Loggerhead turtle (Carella caretta), Pacific Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), Flat back turtle (Natator depressus)
2. Leathery sea turtle Family Dermochelyidae
Leathery turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
3. Side-necked freshwater turtles
Long-necked turtles Genus Chelodina, Snapping turtles Genus Elseya
Southern snapping turtle, (Elseya albagula), Mary River turtle (Elusor macrurus), Snake-necked turtle, (Chelodina longicollis) Also, Emdura, Pseudoemdura, Rheodyte
In Australia, a freshwater turtle is popularly known as a "tortoise", but in other countries a tortoise is a domed-shaped terrestrial reptile.
4. Pig-nosed turtle
Family Carettochelydidae, (Carettochelys insculpa)
5. Red-eared slider
Family Emydidae, Red-eared slider, (Trachemys scripta elegans), is the most common pet turtle in the world.br>
Geckos
Asian house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), "the chuck chuck", Flap-footed lizards, "legless lizards", Family Pygopodidae
Worm lizards, Aprasia
Skinks, Family Scincidae, Blue tongued lizards, Genus Tiliqua, Eastern Blue tongue lizard (Tiliqua scincoides)
Bicycle lizards, Amphibolurus
The crested dragon bicycle lizard (Ctenophorus cristatus) runs on hind limbs
(Moloc horridus), it has thorn-like spines and eats ants
Family Varanidae, Genus Varanus, Australian lace monitor (Varanus varius) uses termites nests to hatch eggs.
9.1.21 Class Aves, birds
Birds (Plastomount, slides), (Commercial).
9.4.0 Birds
6.3 Chicken life cycle (Primary)
Chicken project (Agriculture)
Duck project (Agriculture)
9.1.22 Class Mammalia, mammals
Mammals: Monotremes, Marsupials, Placentals.
Mammals are warm-blooded animals that have mammary glands, which produce milk, hair of some form, a single bone on each side of the lower jaw, live birth.
Monotremes, platypus, echidna, lay eggs, so not "live birth".
Marsupials, kangaroos, bandicoots, quolls, koala, give birth to poorly developed young, which are then carried in a pouch.
Placental mammals, (eutherian mammals), rodents, bats, cats, dogs, goats, foxes, rabbits produce well-developed offspring.
Marine mammals, seals, sea lions, whales, dolphins, dugong, cannot breathe underwater, but have developed adaptations to aquatic life.
3.06 Care for cats
3.1.0 Care for goats
4.25 Care for dogs
Goat Project
9.11.0 Human body
Cells Human cheek cells
9.24.0 Human genetics
10.9.8 Human immunodeficiency virus, (HIV)
4.3.21 Human, Micro-organisms and Personal Hygiene
9.0 Human physiology and Health
9.29 Human population growth
10.6.0 Human relationships
10.0 Human reproduction
Pig Project
23.2.18 Rats (pest of cocoa)
9.1.23 Rabbit, Classification of a rabbit
Kingdom: Animalia, Animals
Phylum, (Division): Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family : Leporidae
European rabbit: (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
9.2.0 Archaea, prokaryotes
Archaea, prokaryotes, have no cell nucleus, no mitosis, no meiosis
Archaea, live in hot acid environment and are mostly anaerobic
Methanococcus jannaschii, lives in hydrothermal vents and its genome has been sequenced.
It derives energy from hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis, an ancient form of respiratory metabolism.
4H2 + CO2 --> CH4 + 2H2O
9.3.0 Chromista
Kingdom Chromista have tinsel-type flagella with brush-like extensions.
9.3.1 Class Bacillariophyceae, diatoms
9.3.2 Class Chrysophyceae, (golden-brown algae)
9.3.3 Class Cryptophyceae, (cryptomonads), (Cryptomonas)
9.3.4 Class Dinoflagellata, (dinoflagellates), (Ceratium)
9.3.5 Class Euglenoidea, (euglenids), (Euglena gracilis
9.3.6 Class Haptophyta, (haptophytes), (Tisochrysis lutea)
9.3.7 Class Mycetozoa, (slime moulds)
9.3.8 Class Oomycetes, (water moulds)
9.3.9 Class Phaeophyceae, (brown algae)
9.3.10 Class Raphidophyceae, raphidophytes
9.3.11 Rhodophyta. (red algae)
Class Ulvophyceae, ulvophytes
Class Xanthophyceae, yellow-green algae
9.3.1 Class Bacillariophyceae, diatoms
Class Bacillariophyceae, (Bacillariophyta), diatoms, plankton, diatomaceous earth, silica shells (silica cell walls), photosynthesis.
Diatoms are unicellular microscopic algae with a silica wall and occur as plankton and fossil forms, e.g. diatomaceous earth.
The word diatom means "cut in two".
Diatoms occur as single cells, colonies or long colonial chains, are yellow to light brown colour.
Their cell walls consist of overlapping silica cells, each like a petri dish.
They float freely in the water or clinging to seaweed, crustaceans and whales.
Example genera: Actinocyclus, Bacillaria, Bellerochea, Cyclotella, Chaetoceros, Cylindrotheca, Fragilaria, Nitzschia, Phaeodactylum, Skeletonema, Thalassiosira
Didymo or rock snot (Didymosphenia geminata) is invasive and causes a mush in freshwater streams.
(Melosira granulata) is a fossil diatom with radial symmetry.
Navicula are boat-shaped diatoms that can move over surfaces using a layer of protoplasm.
9.3.2 Class Chrysophyceae, (golden-brown algae)
Chrysophyte, an alga of the class Chrysophyceae, has two flagella, a red eyespot, yellow-brown chloroplasts and often silica scales on the outside.
The chrysophyte, (Synura australiensis, is a golden-brown algae containing chloroplasts, found mostly in freshwater, covered in silicate scales and yellow colour.
A group of Synura cells aggregates and assembles into a cluster, with each cell has its two flagella facing outward.
9.3.3 Class Cryptophyceae, (cryptomonads), (Cryptomonas)
The Cryptophyceae are a group of flagellate protists including both photosynthetic and phagotrophic taxa.
The cryptomonad, (Cryptomonas paramecium) has an elongate body, two equal in length flagella, anterior gullet, nucleus, contractile vacuole, frequently filled with starch grains, rotates while swimming, can also swim backwards, occasionally jumps backwards unlike most cryptomonad it is colourless and without chloroplasts.
9.3.4 Class Dinoflagellata, dinoflagellates
(Noctiluca scintillans), causes red tide fire in the sea.
(Ceratium polysaccharide), wall has horn-like shapes.
Harmful algal blooms (red tides), are caused by (Karenis brevis) and Alexandrium.
Ciguatera disease is caused by eating reef fish infected by (Gambeirdiscus toxicus).
Ciguatoxins, C60H86O19, Ciguatoxin CTX, is a commonly encountered fish toxin, especially in the Giant moray eel (Gymnothorax javanicus).
Dinoflagellates occur in enormous numbers in the ocean, particularly in tropical waters and display a huge diversity of form.
9.3.5 Class Euglenoidea, (euglenids), (Euglena gracilis)
Phylum: Euglenozoa, Family: Euglenaceae, Genus: Euglena, Species: Euglena gracilis
Euglena,See diagram 9.38: Euglena
Euglena Prepare Euglena culture
Euglena species are single-cell flagellates, which live in water habitats rich in organic matter and may form green or red “blooms” in ponds or lakes.
Euglena has a long flagellum at the anterior of the cell for swimming, chloroplasts surrounded by three membranes, pyrenoid centres of carbon dioxide metabolism.
It has a red eyespot (stigma) for phototaxis, no cell wall, a "pellicle"of proteinaceous strips surrounds the cell, no records of sexual reproduction.
It requires an external supply of vitamin B12.
The species (Euglena sanguinea) produces the alkaloid toxin Euglenophycin, C20H35NO, causing fish kills
The main storage product is paramylon, C18H32O14 and Euglena is produced commercially as a source of paramylon.
Paramylon is a glucose polymer similar to cellulose, but they differ in how the glucose units are linked.
(Cellulose contains β-1→4 glucan linkages, but paramylon has β-1→3 glucan linkages.
9.3.6 Class Haptophyta, (haptophytes)
Haptophyta are planktonic and phototrophic organisms in the worldwide marine environments and mat form massive blooms, which are toxic.
They have a haptonema, a third appendage used for attachment and food handling, two similar flagella, two golden-brown chloroplasts, organic body scales.
Haptophyte (Tisochrysis lutea) is rich in docosahexaenoic acid, (DHA), C22H32O2, so is used to prevent obesity and improve lipid and glucose metabolism.
9.3.7 Class Mycetozoa, (slime moulds)
Common coral slime, (Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa), plasmodial slime mould, widely distributed on decaying wood, white frost-like growth or thin watery layers.
They have pillar or wall-like sporangia buds from the plasmodium.
They develop spores which become flagellated zoospores that will later form new plasmodia.
Ceratiomyxa (Latinceratus 'waxed', Greekmyxa 'mucus'), Eumycetozoa
9.7.1 Phylum Acrasiomycota, slime moulds
9.3.8 Class Oomycetes, water moulds
Class Oomycetes, water moulds, biflagellate zoospores, one anterior and one posterior flagellum
Oomycetes, water moulds, downy mildews, not photosynthetic, rusts, egg "fungi", not a fungus. but similar to brown algae.
[Oomycetes is also classified in KingdomChromista]
(Albugo candida) (Cystopus), water mould, white rust
(Aphanomyces raphani) black root ofRaphanus sativus radish,
(Bremia lactucae), downy mildew of lettuce
(Peronospora cubensis), downy mildew of cucurbits, e.g. cucumber
(Phytophthora infestans), late blight of potatoes, potato blight
9.3.9 Brown algae, Class Phaeophyceae
Phaeophyceae, Phaeophytam are mostly marine, seaweeds, rock weed, kelps, brown to yellow-brown filaments, motile cells with two unequal anterior flagella.
Alginates (alginic acid, algin) are produced from brown algae, kelp.
Alginate, C6H10O7, is a linear copolymer macromolecule, salts and esters of alginic acid are used as hydrogens for dental impressions, and absorbent materials.
A "wrack" is a brown algae that, when exposed by the tide, exudes a sticky brown gel to avoid desiccation.
Experiment: Examine filaments under low power, then examine a cell in detail under high power and look for oogonia and antheridia.
Examine a prepared slide showing dwarf males.
Examples: Chondrus, Cladophora, Cutleria, Desmarestia, Dictyota, Ecklonia, Ectocarpus, Fucus, Himantothallus, Hormosira, Laminaria, Macrocystis. Sargassum
9.3.10 Raphidiophytes, Class Raphidophyceae
Raphidophytes are similar to the Phylum Tribophyta, but with a distinctive internal cell structure.
All are unicellular with no cell walls and no eyespot, marine and mostly freshwater, large single cells with no cell walls, two flagella, many chloroplasts.
The marine species may cause non-toxic algal blooms, e.g. Gonyostomum.
Examples: Chattonella, Chloromorum, Gonyostomum, Heterosigma, Psammamonas, Vacuolaria
9.3.11 Rhodophyta Rhodophyta Division
7.8.3 Carrageenans, red seaweed, Rhodophyceae
Carrageenans are mainly marine, as single cells or filaments, are used to make agar, dulse, nori, contain phycocyanin and phycoerythrin in chloroplasts.
Ceratium colours the upper ocean red.
(Gigartina atropurpurea) is a giant marine kelp.
Gymnodinium, causes red tide, "algal bloom".
Noctiluca causes bioluminescence.
Pyropia is used for "nori". Japanese food.
9.5.0 Heterokontophyta
Heterokontophytes is a group of algae, also known as ochrophytes or stramenochromes.
As of 2024, ochrophytes amount to 23,314 described species, of which the majority are diatoms.
They are the photosynthetic organisms with a cell nucleus, characterized by the presence of two unequal flagella.
They can be single-celled, colonial, coenocytic or multicellular.
All ochrophytes have folds in the mitochondria to increase thr area for cellular respiration.
They are algae, distinguished from other groups of algae by their flagella, chloroplasts and pigments.
They are mostly photosynthetic, but some groups have lost photosynthetic capacity and pigments.
Ochrophyte chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and c as photosynthetic pigments, in addition to fucoxanthin.
Ochrophyte algae accumulate Leucasin, C42H70O12 as a storage product, but they lack starch.
Ochrophytes are present in nearly all environments, including marine habitats, freshwater or soil.
Ochrophytes include brown algae (Phaeophyceae), golden algae (Chrysophyceae), e.g. Hydrurus, and yellow-green algae (Xanthophyceae), e.g. Vaucheria.
Some diatoms, e.g. Cocconeis, grow attached to the substrate through adhesive films, but Eunotia and Nitzschia grow stalks or colonial tubes.
Uunicellular algae Heterosigma and Chattonella, Raphidophyceae, cause fish mortality.
Gonyostomum mucilage damages fish gills and causes algal blooms.
The diatom Chaetoceros clogs fish gills.
(Pseudonitzschia australis) produces neurotoxin domoic acid, C15H21NO6, to cause human shellfish poisoning, mass wildlife mortality and widespread fishery closures.
9.6.0 Phytophthora, water mould, Phylum Oomycota.
Phylum Oomycota, Family: Peronosporaceae, Genus: Phytophthora
Phytophthora are not called fungi, because they have cellulose cell walls, whereas fungi have chitin cell walls.
They have diploid chromosomes in non-reproductive stage (fungi haploid cells).
They have hyphae that lack cross walls, coenocytic hyphae and they have two types of flagella.
Phytophthora, brown rot disease of citrus, affects especially "Washington Navel" orange and lemons, top and root rot of pineapple
Phytophthora cause collar rot of citrus, phytophthora blight of passionfruit, cocoa black pod, cinnamon root rot in hemlock, root rot and stem cankers in citrus trees, red root rot of strawberries, fruit rot in coconut and betel nut, soybean root rot
Phytophthora infestans, causes potato (late) blight, in the Great Famine of Ireland
9.7.0 Kingdom Protista, protists
A protista has such simple cellular organism that it is not classified as a plant, animal or fungus.
Most protista are unicellular, and live in water or water soil or are parasitic.
Some protista are multicellular algae, e.g. kelps - seaweeds without specialized tissues.
All protista have a nucleus, so are eukaryotic.
Protista may be heterotrophic or autotrophic, i.e. chemotrophic or phototrophic.
9.10.0 Phylum Amoebozoa, (Phylum Rhizopoda)
9.7.3 Phylum Apicomplexa, (parasites), Plasmodium vivax
9.11.0 Ciliophora, (pond dwellers), Paramecium
9.7.5 Phylum Choanozoa, (in sponges)
9.9.0 Phylum Metamonada, (in termites)
9.7.7 Phylum Myxomycota, slime moulds
9.7.8 Phylum Percolozoa
9.7.1 Acrasiomycota, slime moulds
Acrasiomycota, (cellular slime moulds), causes powdery scab on potatoes.
Formerly it was thought to be a fungus hence the "mycota", e.g. Guttulinopsis, Pocheina.
9.7.3 Apicomplexa, Phylum Apicomplexa
Babesia causes Babesiosis,
(Plasmodium vivax) causes Malaria,
Cryptosporidium in drinking water causes Cryptosporidiosis,
(Toxoplasma gondii) causes toxoplasmosis.
9.7.7 Phylum Myxomycota, slime moulds
Myxomycota are fungi-like organisms that may move around like an amoeba or a blob called a plasmodium.
They live on decomposing vegetation and they consume bacteria.
They may be seen as creeping and crawling threads of “slime” in their motile stage.
However, as food becomes scarce, these threads come together and form a fruiting body that produces spores.
The fruiting body may be irregular clumps, small balls or regular pin or feather-shaped structures joined together.
Dogs vomit (Fuligo septica) is a slime mould commonly seen on sugar cane mulch.
9.7.8 Phylum Percolozoa
The Percolozoa are a group of colourless, non-photosynthetic protists with a feeding groove.
Many that can transform between amoeboid, flagellate, and cyst stages.
Percolozoa are bacterivores in soil, fresh water and the ocean.
The brain-eating amoeba, (Naegleria fowleri) can cause fatal amoebic meningitis.
9.8.0 Taxons
Taxons are the ranks used in biology classification:
Taxonomic rank: domain kingdom phylum (zoology), (division : botany) class order family genus species
Taxons are based on the Linnean sequence, Carolus Linnaeus 1707-1778, published in "Systema Naturae" in 1735.
A taxon at the rank of Division is the second highest taxonomic classification for the kingdoms Plantae (plants) and fungi.
In biology, Division is between Kingdom level and Class level.
Taxonomy, systematics, is the classification of living and extinct organisms.
(Greektaxis 'arrangement' andnomos 'law')
See:9.1.23 Classification of a rabbit
See:Bean, Bean, Classification of a common bean
9.9.0 Metamonada, Phylum Metamonada
Metamonada flagellates have no mitochondria
(Giardia lamblia) causes "beaver fever", in termite guts to assist the breakdown of cellulose.
(Trichomonas vaginalis) causes trichomoniasis, one of the most prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in the US.
Trichomoniasis, (Trichomonas vaginalis)
(Trimastix pyriformis) is free-living, has four flagella and consumes bacteria.
9.10.0 Phylum Amoebozoa (Phylum Rhizopoda)
9.10.1 Amoeba proteus
9.10.2 Entamoeba coli, E. coli
9.10.3 Entamoeba histolytica
9.10.1 Amoeba proteus
See diagram 9.38.1: Amoeba
Amoeba proteus is a single cell, aquatic, organism that is constantly changing shape.
The cytoplasm consists of clear jelly-like ectoplasm and granular endoplasm.
A clear rounded area, contractile vacuole, expands and contracts as it collects and expels water to maintain the concentration of the cytoplasm.
A central nucleus controls all the activities.
It moves by forming a pseudopodium (false foot), by the endoplasm flowing into the ectoplasm.
The amoeba flows into the pseudopodium which may be anchored to the substrate by the outer membrane, pellicle or plasma lemma, becoming sticky.
Amoeba feeds on small organisms by flowing around them and enclosing them in a food vacuole, where they are digested.
Reproduction is by simple binary fission, when the amoeba splits into two.
Amoeba avoids dry conditions by forming a spore with an external cyst wall.
Entamoeba species have no contractile vacuole possibly, because the live as parasites in vertebrates.
They have only one or two large blunt pseudopodia.
9.10.2 Entamoeba coli, Phylum Rhizopoda
(Entamoeba coli) lives in human large intestine, feeding on bacteria and remains of digested food, commensal parasite and is harmless.
It may have up to 8 nuclei when it divides inside a cyst in the faeces.
Infection occurs after ingestion of cysts in fecally-contaminated food or water.
In the small intestine, the cysts break open to release sporozoan trophozoites, which migrate to the large intestine, absorb nutrients, grow and multiply to form cysts.
Do not confuse with:
Escherichia Phylum Proteobacteria, Escherichia coli (E. coli), the names are similar
(Entamoeba histolytica), Phylum Rhizopoda
(Entamoeba histolytica), causes amoebic dysentery when it attacks the mucous membrane of the intestine, causing blood in stools and peritonitis.
It may also cause abscesses in the liver.
It has 4 nuclei, but no mitochondria.
Entamoeba histolytica causes about 50 million infections world wide, with a death rate of over 100, 000 annually.
Wheatley trichrome staining of the trophozoites, (growing stage when it is absorbing nutrients from the host), is commonly used for diagnosis of amoebic dysentery
Entamoeba histolytica in microscopic faeces specimens, looks like Entamoeba coli.
3.13.5 Heidenhain iron haematoxylin is used to stain mitotic figures in amoeba, after fixation.
9.11.0 Ciliophora, Phylum Ciliophora
Ciliophora, ciliates (have cilia), Balantidium, Colpoda, Paramecium, Tetrahymena, Vorticella
See diagram 9.3.35: Protozoa.
9.35 Phylum Ciliophora, Succession in a pond community, hay infusion cultures, Protozoa
Flagellate protozoa (formerly a class of phylum Mastigophora)
Phytoflagellates (have chloroplasts)
Zooflagellates (do not have chloroplasts)
Examples: Balantidium, Paramecium, Stentor, Stylonychia, Vorticella
9.12.0 Eucaryota and Prokaryota
Eukaryota, (Greekeu 'good', andkaruon 'nut')
Eukaryotes have a cell nucleus and nuclear membrane, + organelles, e.g. chromosomes, mitochondria, golgi apparatus.
Eukaryote, Eukaryota, multicellular, cells have nucleus, contain all the animals, plants, fungi, and some unicellular organisms
Most organisms are eukaryotes, except bacteria.
All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes.
Eucaryota:
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Animalia

Prokaryota:
Prokaryotes are unicellular, cell has no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles, no mitochondria.
Prokaryotes contain Bacteria (formerly Eubacteria), and Archaea (formerly Archaebacteria)
"9.1.0.0 Algae
Algae are simple, non-flowering, and typically aquatic plants of a large group that includes the seaweeds and many single-celled forms.
Algae contain chlorophyll, but lack true stems, roots, leaves, and vascular tissue.
Euglenophyta, e.g. Euglena.
Chrysophyta, golden algae.
Pyrrophyta, fire algae, luciferin.
Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta, and Rhodophyta.
Protists
Sacordina (protists that move using pseudopod).
Mastigophora (protists that move using flagella).
Ciliaphora (protists that move using cilia), and Sporozoa (protists that form spores).
As for the plant-like protists (Subkingdom Phycobionta), there are also various phyla: Euglenophyta, Chrysophyta (diatoms), Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates).
Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae), and Rhodophyta (red algae).
The Cyanophyta or blue-green algae, which are prokaryotic organisms, are traditionally included in this group but in recent classification, they are now grouped together with bacteria under Kingdom Monera.
9.10.5 Myxomycota, Phylum Myxomycota
Myxomycota, (acellular or plasmodial or coenocytic slime moulds)
It is a plasmodium, slime fungus, fungus-like slime moulds.
Most Myxomycota are not fungi.
The Class also includes the giant kelps, e.g. Stemonitis, Physarum polycephalum!
9.10.6 Percolozoa, Phylum Percolozoa
9.35 Rotifers, Succession in a pond community, hay infusion cultures
9.10.0 Phylum Mollusca (molluscs)
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
9.6.1 Phylum Annelida, ringed worms, segmented worms
Class Polychaeta, bristle worms, polychaetes (paddle-footed annelids, usually marine swimming worms), Nereis ragworm
Class Polychaeta, Sipuncula (sipunculan worms, peanut worms) (Phylum Sipuncula), Sipunculus, Phascolosoma
Class Polychaeta, Echiura, spoon worms, burrow worms, echiuran worms, (marine), Bonellia green spoonworm
Class Oligochaeta, earthworms, angleworms, Lumbricus common earthworm, Allolobophora green worm, Eisenia red wriggler worms
Class Hirudinea (leeches), Hirudo medical leech
Class Pogonophora (beard worms), Riftia giant tube worm
9.1.6 Earthworm behaviour, Lumbricus
9.6.2 Subphylum Crustacea, crustaceans
Class Malacostraca (crabs, krill, pill bugs, shrimp)
Class Branchiopoda (branchiopods)
Artemia salina (brine shrimp) in inland salt water lakes
Artemia nyos ("Sea-monkey" (toy product)
Order Cladocera (water fleas)
Daphnia pulex
Subclass Cirripedia (barnacles)
Class Ostracoda (ostracods)