Diversity of animals, plants and protista.

School Science Lessons
(UNBiolDiversity) 2024-11-16
Please send comments to: j.elfick@uq.edu.au
Contents
9.1 Animal kingdom (animals)
9.2 Archaea, prokaryotes
9.3 Kingdom Chromista
9.4 Blue-green algae, Cyanobacteria
9.5 Heterokontophyta
9.6 Lichens
9.7 Protista
9.8 Taxons
9.9 Domain Eucaryota
9.24 Phylum Metamonada
9.25 Phylum Amoebozoa (Phylum Rhizopoda)
9.26 Phylum Ciliophora
9.27 Phylum Glomeromycota
9.28 Phylum Cerozoa, amoeboids and flagellates, slime mould
9.30 Phylum Protozoa (protozoans)
9.29 Phylum Zygomycota, zygomycetes, Class Microsporidia, Microsporum

9.1 Animal kingdom, (animals)
Animals
2.0 Animals (Primary)
4.1.9 Animal tissue culture, Safety in school science
Animals, Kingdom Animalia
9.30 Phylum Protozoa (protozoans)
Phylum Porifera, (sponges)
9.3.0 Phylum Coelenterata
9.4.0 Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
9.5.0 Phylum Nematoda (nematodes)
9.6.0 Phylum Annelida (annelids)
9.7.0 Phylum Arthropoda (crustaceans, insects, spiders, mites)
9.10.0 Phylum Mollusca (molluscs)
9.11.0 Phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms)
9.12.0 Phylum Chordata (chordates)
Phylum Hemichordata (hemichordates)
Subphylum Urochordata (sea squirts, tunicates)
9.15.0 Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates)
9.16.0 Class Agnatha, Petromyzontida, jawless fish, lampreys
Class Chondrichthes, cartilaginous fish, elasmobranchs, (sharks, dogfish, stingrays)
Class Osteichthyes, (bony fish, "fish")
9.19.0 Class Sarcopterygii, (Crossopterygii), (lobe-finned fish), (coelacanths)
Subclass Dipnoi (lungfishes)
Class Amphibia (amphibians)
9.22.0 Class Reptilia (reptiles)
9.23.0 Class Aves (birds)
9.24.0 Class Mammalia (mammals)
9.24.1 Classification of a rabbit
9.25.0 Class Mammalia, Humans, (mammals)

9.2 Archaea, prokaryotes
Prokaryotes have no cell nucleus, no mitosis, no meiosis
Archaea, Archaebacteria, live in hot acid environment and are mostly anaerobic
Example: Methanococcus jannaschii, lives in hydrothermal vents and its genome has been sequenced.

9.3 Kingdom Chromista
Kingdom Chromista have tinsel-type flagella with brush-like extensions.
9.19 Class Oomycetes, water moulds
9.10 Class Bacillariophyceae, diatoms
9.11 Class Chrysophyceae, (golden-brown algae)
9.13 Class Cryptophyceae, (cryptomonads), (Cryptomonas sp.)
9.14 Class Dinoflagellata, (dinoflagellates), (Ceratium sp.)
9.15 Class Euglenoidea, Euglenophyceae, (euglenids), (Euglena viridis)
9.15 Euglenophyceae, euglenids, (Euglena viridis)
9.16 Class Haptophyta, (haptophytes), (Tisochrysis lutea)
9.5 Heterokontophyta, (Blastocystis sp.)
9.18 Class Mycetozoa, (slime moulds)
9.19 Class Oomycetes, (water moulds)
9.20 Class Phaeophyceae, (brown algae)
9.21 Class Raphidophyceae, raphidophytes
9.0.14 Rhodophyta (red algae)
9.221 Class Ulvophyceae, (ulvophytes), (green algae)
9.23 Class Xanthophyceae, (yellow-green algae)
Class Bacillariophyceae, diatoms
7.2 Ectocarpus silucosis, filamentous brown algae
7.4 Water moulds, saprophytic in wet soils, downy mildew plant parasites
Phytophthora infestans, parasite of potato, Phytophthora cinnamomi, causes forest diebacks
Allomyces arbuscula Hypochytriomycota Division
Have one anterior flagellum, chytrids.

9.4 Blue-green algae, Cyanobacteria
16.3.5.2.6 Phycobilin, phycocyanin, phycoerythrin, Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta
The "blue-green algae", now called "Cyanobacteria", are prokaryotic and a form of bacteria that contains chlorophyll and so photosynthetic.
Cyanobacteria are grey-green, violet, brown, purplish or red, and contain phycocyanin, phycoerythrin.
They occur as single cells, colonies and more complex structures.
They have no membrane-bound organelles in the cells, so they have no nucleus defined by a membrane, no dispersed photosynthetic pigments, no chloroplasts.
Sexual reproduction and motile cells have not yet been observed.
Similar to the Cyanobacteria are marine and freshwater phytoplankton that cause algal blooms, e.g. Synechoccus, Prochloron, Pochlorococcus.
Blue Green algae genera: Anabaena, Gloeotrichia, Microcystis. Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Spirulina

Mastigocladus laminosus, is a thermophilic cyanobacterium that lives in hot springs.

Nostoc, (Nostoc commune), cyanobacterium, can fix atmospheric nitrogen, lives in leaf cavities of the Hornworts. Anthocerotophyta.
Division, and in the roots of Cycas species
Nostoc, star jelly, star shot, star slime, witch’s butter, witch’s jelly, is a dark blue-green, jelly-like organism found in damp grass.
It dries to form a black shrivelled crust.
It produces green chlorophyll for photosynthesis and a blue pigment phycocyanin, C13H10N2O, for photosynthesis under low light conditions and is the origin of the name cyanobacteria, “blue-green” bacteria.
Nostoc can fix only a small amount of nitrogen compared to fixation by legumes. but it is useful in paddy production of rice.

Spirulina is a mixture of Arthrospira platensis, (Spirulina platensis) + Arthrospira maxima (Spirulina maxima), edible nutritious algae used as a food and in health drinks.
Spirulina maxima and Spirulina platensis, are nitrogen-fixing and live in leaf cavities of floating ferns, China, Family Phormidiaceae.
The dried herb is sold as spirulina powder.

9.5 Heterokontophyta
Heterokontophytes is a group of algae, also known as ochrophytes or stramenochromes.
As of 2024, ochrophytes amount to 23,314 described species, of which the majority are diatoms.
They are the photosynthetic organisms with a cell nucleus, characterized by the presence of two unequal flagella.
They can be single-celled, colonial, coenocytic or multicellular.
All ochrophytes have folds in the mitochondria to increase thr area for cellular respiration.
They are algae, distinguished from other groups of algae by their flagella, chloroplasts and pigments.
They are mostly photosynthetic, but some groups have lost photosynthetic capacity and pigments.
Ochrophyte chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and c as photosynthetic pigments, in addition to fucoxanthin.
Ochrophyte algae accumulate | Leucasin, C42H70O12 | as a storage product, but they lack starch.
Ochrophytes are present in nearly all environments, including marine habitats, freshwater or soil.
Ochrophytes include brown algae (Phaeophyceae), golden algae (Chrysophyceae), e.g. Hydrurus, and yellow-green algae (Xanthophyceae), e.g. Vaucheria, Tribonema and Bumilleria.
Some diatoms, e.g. Cocconeis, grow attached to the substrate through adhesive films, but Eunotia and Nitzschia grow stalks or colonial tubes.
Uunicellular algae Heterosigma and Chattonella, Raphidophyceae, cause fish mortality.
Gonyostomum mucilage damages fish gills and causes algal blooms.
The diatom Chaetoceros clog fish gills, and Pseudonitzschia produces a neurotoxin to cause shellfish poisoning.

9.6 Lichens, Ascomycota
A lichen is symbiotic relationship between an algae or cyanobacteria and a fungus, within the body of a fungus.
A symbiosis is the partnership between two species for the benefit of each.
The photosynthetic algae partner in the lichen thallus is called a photobiont.
Many lichen species contain, algae genus Trebouxia, which can also live independently in marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments.
Each type of lichen has a characteristic shape.
The fungi in a lichen are mainly Ascomycetes.
Lichens may be nitrogen-fixing.
Lichens are found in most places in the world and are very susceptible to air pollution in the atmosphere.
They may be damaged by sulfur dioxide or other harmful gases, and may die.
So lichens are sensitive plant detectors of air pollution.
1. Crustose lichens form a flattened thin crust on rocks, soil and tree bark.
These encrusting forms spread over and into the surface of their habitat.
They crumble if removed from the surface.
2. Foliose lichens are like leaves on rocks and tree bark, sometimes with a paper texture.
The leafy lobes spread out over the surface.
They can be easily removed with a knife, because they are attached to the surface by root-like threads.
3. Fructicose lichens have upright stalks with many thread-like branches, sometimes with fruiting structures at the ends.
They have shrubby forms with many branches.
They can be removed from the surface by hand.
4. Squamulose lichens have a primary and secondary loosely-attached thallus.
Lung lichen, (Lobaria pulmonaria), lungwort, is a nitrogen-fixing lichen
Felt lichen, (Peltigera canina), dog lichen, a nitrogen-fixing lichen and a herbal medicine
Ascomycota Division sac fungi, lichens (Lichens are usually classified by the species of fungus.)
Class Ascomycetes
Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica), Parmeliaceae, (Experiment)
Evernia furfuraceae, ring lichen, tree moss, bush lichen (fixative agent in eau de cologne)
Hypogymnia austerodes, tube lichen, foliose lichen like a leaf Letharia vulpina, wolf lichen
Lobaria pulmonaria, lung lichen, lungwort, a nitrogen-fixing lichen
Peltigera canina, felt lichen, dog lichen, a nitrogen-fixing lichen and herbal medicine
Acarospora tilesii, cracked lichen, a crustose lichen that forms a thin crust
Cladonia stricta, cup lichen, reindeer "moss", a squamulose, loosely attached thallus lichen with a primary and a secondary thallus
Rocella tinctoria, litmus acid/base indicator is extracted from it
Usnea longissima, Methuselah's beard lichen (recent absence indicates air pollution)
Usnea rubicunda, old man's beard, red beard lichen, tree lichen
Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica), Parmeliaceae
Cetraria islandica, island cetraria lichen ("Iceland moss") is a lichen growing abundantly in the mountainous regions of Europe, usually lava slopes, USA
It is easily digested, has a bitter taste, and is used medicinally as a folk medicine.
Dried herb sold as aerials flakes.
Experiments
1. Examine a specimen of a common lichen.
Study a prepared slide showing a transverse section of the thallus revealing the presence of alga and fungus.
Look for the penetrating haustoria.
2. Attach 10 lichens on a board.
Then put them in three places, e.g. near a factory, in the central city and far from the factory.
Observe any change in the lichens after one mouth.
Count the percentage of damaged lichens.
Lichens indicators are used as indicators of air pollution and species diversity.

9.7 Kingdom Protista, protists
A protista has such simple cellular organism that it is not classified as a plant, animal or fungus.
Most protista are unicellular, (although some multicellular algae, e.g. kelps - seaweeds, are without specialized tissues), and live in water or water soil or are parasitic.
All protista have a nucleus, so are eukaryotic.
Protista may be heterotrophic or autotrophic, i.e. chemotrophic or phototrophic.
9.10.1 Phylum Acrasiomycota, slime moulds
9.25 Phylum Amoebozoa (Phylum Rhizopoda)
9.10.2 Phylum Apicomplexa, (parasites), Plasmodium vivax
9.26 Ciliophora, (pond dwellers), Paramecium
9.10.3 Phylum Choanozoa, (in sponges)
9.24 Phylum Metamonada, (in termites)
9.10.5 Phylum Myxomycota, slime moulds
9.10.6 Phylum Percolozoa
9.10.7 Phylum Prasinophyta

Bean Classification of a common bean
Kingdom: Plantae, Plants, Subkingdom: Tracheobionta, Vascular plants, Superdivision: Spermatophyta, Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta
Angiospermae, flowering plants Class: Magnoliopsida, Dicotyledons, Subclass: Rosidae
Order: Fabales, also called Leguminales
Family: Fabaceae, also called Leguminosae, Pea Family
Genus and species, binomial classification: (Phaseolus vulgaris), Bean, common bean, field bean, French bean,
garden bean, green bean (pole bean, climbing bean, bushy bean),
haricot bean, kidney bean, runner bean, snap bean, string bean.

9.9 Eucaryota
Eukaryota, Eukaryota, (Greek eu good, karuon nut)
Eukaryotes have a cell nucleus and nuclear membrane, + organelles, e.g. chromosomes, mitochondria, golgi apparatus, so most organisms are eukaryotes, except bacteria.
All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes.
Plants, Plantae
Animals, Animalia
9.10 Class Bacillariophyceae, diatoms
Class Bacillariophyceae, (Bacillariophyta), diatoms, plankton, diatomaceous earth, silica shells (silica cell walls), photosynthesis.
Diatoms are unicellular microscopic algae with a silica wall and occur as plankton and fossil forms, e.g. diatomaceous earth.
The word diatom means "cut in two".
Diatoms occur as single cells, colonies or filaments, are yellow to light brown colour, with cell walls consisting of overlapping silica cells, each like a petri dish.
Example species: Actinocyclus, Bacillaria, Bellerochea, Cyclotella, Chaetoceros, Cylindrotheca, Fragilaria, Nitzschia, Phaeodactylum, Skeletonema, Thalassiosira
Didymosphenia geminata, called didymo or rock snot, is invasive causing a mush in freshwater streams.
Melosira granulata is a fossil diatom with radial symmetry.
Navicula species are boat-shaped diatoms that can move over surfaces using a layer of protoplasm.
Odontella aurita is a marine diatom with characteristic unusual shape.

9.11 Class Chrysophyceae, (golden-brown algae)
Class Chrysophyceae, golden algae, golden-brown algae, Ochromonas, Dinobryon, Chrysamoeba
Unicellular flagellates, mostly freshwater, pigment fucoxanthin
Single cells, colonies, filaments yellow, golden-brown.
Motile cells with two unequal anterior flagella.
Examples: Chrysamoeba, Chrysocapsa, Dinobryon, Lagynion, Ochromonas

9.13 Class Cryptophyceae, cryptomonads
Cryptomonads are algae with mechanical escape "spring", single cells, and are red to olive-brown, motile cells have two unequal flagella.
Examples: Cryptomonas, Chroomonas, Rhodomonas, Chlamydomonas, Chlorococcum, Chilomonas, Falcomonas, Plagioselmis, Rhinomonas, Teleaulax

9.14 Class Dinoflagellata, dinoflagellates
Dinoflagellates, marine and freshwater plankton, brown cells, are biflagellate.
Motile cells with prominent transverse furrow containing two flagella.
One flagellum encircles the cell transversely, the other extends out from the cell.
Single cells, mostly marine, two unequal flagella, photosynthesis or parasitic, causes red tide.
Gymnodinium (naked dinoflagellate), Noctiluca scintillans, causes red tide, fire in the sea.
Ceratium polysaccharide, wall has horn-like shapes.
Harmful algal blooms (red tides), caused by Karenis brevis and Alexandrium.
Ciguatera disease is caused by eating reef fish infected by Gambeirdiscus toxicus.
Examples: Alexandrium, Ceratium, Dinophysis, Gonyaulax, Gymnodinium, Noctiluca, Peridinium, and Polykrikos.

9.15, Euglena
Euglena, (Euglena gracilis), Euglenaceae
Phylum: Euglenozoa, Family: Euglenaceae, Genus: Euglena, Species: Euglena gracilis
Euglena, See diagram 9.38: Euglena (two flagella)
Euglena Prepare Euglena culture
Euglena species are single-cell flagellates.
They a live in water habitats rich in organic matter and may form green or red “blooms” in ponds or lakes.
The Euglena cell has a long and short two flagellum at the anterior of the cell, with the long flagellum used for swimming.
Euglena has several chloroplasts surrounded by three membranes and with pyrenoids.
A red eyespot (stigma) is used for phototaxis.
No cell wall, but a "pellicle"of proteinaceous strips surrounds the cell.
No sexual reproduction has been recorded.
It requires an external supply of vitamin B12.
The species Euglena sanguinea produce alkaloid toxin | Euglenophycin| causing fish kills
The main storage product is paramylon, C18H32O14 and Euglena is produced commercially as a source of paramylon.

9.16 Class Haptophyta, haptophytes
Haptophytes, golden or yellow-brown cells, marine plankton, fucoxanthin pigment, unicellular flagellates, chrysolaminarin, causes algal blooms on marine beaches.
Single cells, colonies or filaments are golden-brown.
Motile cells with two almost equal flagella and a thread-like organelle between them, called the haptonema
Examples: Pavlova, Isochrysis Pseudoisochrysis, Dicrateria, Monochrysis

9.18 Class Mycetozoa
Mycetozoa, Phylum Myxomycota, Myxomycetes, (acellular or plasmodial or coenocytic slime moulds), giant kelps,
Examples: Stemonitis, Physarum polycephalum

9.19 Class Oomycetes, water moulds
Class Oomycetes, water moulds, biflagellate zoospores, one anterior and one posterior flagellum
Oomycetes, water moulds, downy mildews, not photosynthetic, rusts, egg "fungi", not a fungus. but similar to brown algae.
[Oomycetes is also classified in Kingdom Chromista]
Examples:
Albugo candida (Cystopus), water mould, white rust
Aphanomyces raphani black root of Raphanus sativus radish,
Bremia lactucae, downy mildew of lettuce
Peronospora cubensis, downy mildew of cucurbits, e.g. cucumber
Phytophthora infestans, late blight of potatoes, potato blight

9.20 Brown algae, Class Phaeophyceae
Phaeophyceae, Phaeophytam are mostly marine, seaweeds, rock weed, kelps, brown to yellow-brown filaments, motile cells with two unequal anterior flagella.
Alginates (alginic acid, algin) are produced from brown algae, kelp.
A wrack is a brown algae that, when exposed by the tide, exudes a sticky brown gel to avoid desiccation.
Experiment: Examine filaments under low power, then examine a cell in detail under high power and look for oogonia and antheridia.
Examine a prepared slide showing dwarf males.
Examples: Chondrus, Cladophora, Cutleria, Desmarestia, Dictyota, Ecklonia, Ectocarpus, Fucus, Himantothallus, Hormosira, Laminaria, Macrocystis. Sargassum

9.21 Raphidiophytes, Class Raphidophyceae
Raphidophytes are similar to the Phylum Tribophyta, but with a distinctive internal cell structure.
All are unicellular with no cell walls and no eyespot, marine and mostly freshwater, large single cells with no cell walls, two flagella, many chloroplasts.
The marine species may cause non-toxic algal blooms, e.g. Gonyostomum.
Examples: Chattonella, Chloromorum, Gonyostomum, Heterosigma, Psammamonas, Vacuolaria

9.22 Ulvophytes, Class Ulvophyceae,
Marine species: (Ulvophytes are mostly seaweeds): Caulerpa, Codium, Acetabularia, Cladophora, Halimeda Trentepohlia Monostroma, Ulva sea lettuce
Fresh water species, weeds: Rhizoclonium, Pithophora Cladophora
Halimeda, in Great Barrier Reef Australia, Halimeda tuna, edible green macroalgae, thallus is calcified green segments.

9.23 Yellow-green algae, Class Xanthophyceae,
Xanthophyceae, xanthophytes, have single cells or filaments, are green or yellow-green, motile cells with two unequal anterior flagella.
Examples: Botrydium, Bumilleriopsis, Tribonema Olisthodiscus, Carteria, Dunaliella
9.41.1 Vaucheria

9.24 Metamonada, Phylum Metamonada
Metamonada flagellates have no mitochondria
Giardia lamblia causes "beaver fever", in termite guts to assist the breakdown of cellulose.
Trichomonas vaginalis causes trichomoniasis.
Trimastix pyriformis is free-living, has four flagella and consumes bacteria.

9.25 Phylum Amoebozoa (Phylum Rhizopoda)
9.16.1 Amoeba proteus
9.16.2 Entamoeba coli, E. coli
9.16.3 Entamoeba histolytica

9.26 Ciliophora, Phylum Ciliophora
Ciliophora, ciliates (have cilia), Balantidium, Colpoda, Paramecium, Tetrahymena, Vorticella
See diagram 9.3.35
9.35 Phylum Ciliophora, Succession in a pond community, hay infusion cultures, Protozoa
Phytoflagellates (have chloroplasts)
Zooflagellates (do not have chloroplasts)
Examples: Balantidium, Paramecium, Stentor, Stylonychia, Vorticella

9.30 Phylum Protozoa (protozoans)
See diagram 9.3.35: Protozoa.
The term protozoa has been abandoned by scientists in favour of the term protist meaning any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant, or fungus.
Protists do not form a natural group, but are a paraphyletic assemblage of similar-appearing. but diverse taxa, said to be members of the Kingdom Protista.
9.7 Kingdom Protista (protists)
The old classification of Phylum protozoa:
Protozoa are single-celled (unicellular), but may be colonial if no division of functions.
Gas exchange and excretion is by diffusion.
Osmoregulation in freshwater forms is by a contractile vacuole.
Asexual reproduction is by binary fission and sometimes sexual reproduction by conjugation occurs.
1. Class Rhizopoda, move by pseudopodia, feed by phagocytosis
9.25 Phylum Amoebozoa (Phylum Rhizopoda)
9.1.3 Phylum Foraminifera
9.1.4 Phylum Actinopoda, radiolarians
2. Class Mastigophora, move by flagella and feed by direct absorption
9.15 Class Euglenoidea, Euglena
3. Class Ciliophora, move by cilia and feed by phagocytosis through a "mouth" part of the cell
9.26 Phylum Ciliophora, ciliate, Paramecium
4. Class Sporozoa, parasitic so no obvious method of locomotion, feed by direct absorption from the host
9.10.2 Phylum Apicomplexa, (parasites), Plasmodium vivax
9.37.4 Protozoan diseases
9.35 Succession in a pond community, hay infusion cultures, Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium

9.3.0 Phylum Coelenterata
Phylum Coelenterata (Phylum Ctenophora, comb jellies, Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, sea anemones)
Classification of Coelenterata
(Modern taxonomists use the following phyla instead of Phylum Coelenterata: Phylum Ctenophora, comb jellies, Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, sea anemones)
Phylum Coelenterata, (Greek koilos hollow, énteron, intestine), are mostly marine colonial organisms, with two cell layers, ectoderm and endoderm, separated by jelly-like mesogloea, have radial symmetry, hollow cup-like body (enteron cavity), with only one entrance, tentacles around the mouth, independent stinging cells not connected to the network nervous system.
Coelenterata have two body forms:
The hydroid form is a sedentary polyp.
The medusa form is a plankton jellyfish-like organism.
1. Class Hydrozoa, have polyp and medusa forms in the life cycle Order Hydrida
e.g. Hydra, is one of the few freshwater species
See diagram 9.37.4 Hydra.
Obelia forms a colony of hollow tubes attached to seaweed with polyp heads, hydranths, specialized either for feeding or for reproducing by medusa buds.
See diagram 9.37.7 Obelia.
Order Siphonophora, marine pelagic with apical float, pneumatophore e.g. Physalia, "Portuguese man-of-war"
See diagram 9.37.6 Physalia, "Portuguese man-of-war".
In Australia, it is commonly called a "bluebottle", where the dactylozoids detach in the water off the surfing beaches and surfers are stung by the nematocysts.
2. Class Scyphozoa, jellyfish, medusa form is the main stage in the life cycle, e.g. Aurelia
See diagram 9.37.5 Aurelia jellyfish.
The "jellyfish", which may be classified as Phylum Cnidaria, subphylum Medusozoa, refers only to the medusa phase of the life cycle.
Some aquariums use the term "sea jellies"instead of "jellyfish", because it is not a "fish".
3. Class Anthozoa (Actinozoa), only the polyp stage in the life cycle, Order Alcyonaria, corals,
e.g. Red coral, Corallium rubrum, Order Zoantharia
e.g. Sea anemone, Actinia equina.

9.4.0 Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
9.36 Flatworms, Dugesia, Planaria
9.37.2 Fluke diseases, trematode diseases, Class Trematoda
9.37.5 Tapeworm diseases, Class Cestoda
Classification of Platyhelminthes
Many Platyhelminthes are parasites of humans and other animals.
To control these parasites, their life cycle can be broken by killing the hosts or parasites in the host, thoroughly cooking food that contain parasites, and sanitary disposal of human and animal wastes.
Make sure that children wash their hands thoroughly after handling cats and dogs.
Platyhelminthes have a dorsiventrally-flattened body (flattened from above), bilateral symmetry (head, tail, left and right sides), three cell layers: (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm), but no body cavity.
Both sex organs are present in the one organism (hermaphrodite).
They have a primitive brain and paired ventral nerve cords.
The three classes of platyhelminthes are as follows:
1. Class Turbellaria, planarians, are free-living flatworms with simple anterior eyes and can replace lost body parts (regeneration).
They move with cilia and rhythmical muscle contraction to scavenge detritus.
2. Class Trematoda, flukes, have a complex attaching devices of suckers and sometimes hooks.
They attach themselves to the interior of the host and suck in blood and mucus with a muscular pharynx.
Cat liver fluke (Opisthorchiasis felineus)
Chinese liver fluke (Clonorchis sinensis)
Lung fluke (Paragonimus westermani)
Schistosoma fluke (Schistosoma mansoni, S. japonicum), bilharzia, schistosomiasis disease, infection by skin penetration, parasite in freshwater snails
Sheep liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica)
See diagram 9.37.1: Fasciola hepatica.
3. Class Cestoda, tapeworms, attach to the gut wall of host by an attaching device (scolex) with hooks and suckers.
The body is divided into segments (proglottids) that are continually produced behind the scolex.
They remain attached to the interior of the hosts digestive system and absorb the pre digested food.
Pork tapeworm (Taenia solium), infection from eating undercooked pork
See diagram 9.37.2: Taenia solium.
Hydatid tapeworm (Echinococcus granulosis), infection from faeces in dog fur
See diagram 9.37.3: Life cycle of Echinococcus granulosis.
Cat tapeworm (Dipylidium caninum), infection from ingestion of cat flea.

9.5.0 Phylum Nematoda (nematodes)
Phylum Nematoda (nematodes, roundworms, pinworms, threadworms, hookworms)
Ascaris lumbricoides (human intestinal roundworm)
Slide – Echinococcus Granulosus of Entire Worm, Modern Teaching Aids, (Commercial).
See diagram 9.37.9: Rhabditis mature female.
9.37.3 Nematode diseases
11.22 Burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis

9.6.0 Phylum Annelida (annelids)
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms), annelids
9.6.1 Phylum Annelida (segmented worms, ringed worms)
9.33.0 Earthworm behaviour, Lumbricus
9.14.7 Worm farms
Annelids
Annelids have soft cylindrical bodies, segmented, bilaterally symmetrical, blood vessels, bristles (chaetae), the main body cavity (coelom) surrounded by mesoderm with ducts to exterior to carry wastes, (filtered by nephridia), and gametes, paired ventral nerve cords
Class Polychaeta, mostly marine, move by undulations and parapodia bearing many chaetae, separate sexes, free-swimming larva, distinct head.
Class Oligochaeta, terrestrial burrowing, digest garden detritus, move by peristalsis ripples, few chaetae, hermaphrodite, eggs laid in cocoons, no larva
See diagram 9.37.8 TS Lumbricus terrestris.
Class Hirudinea, leeches, suck blood and use anticoagulant, segments divided into rings, no chaetae or parapodia, hermaphrodite, eggs laid in cocoons, no larva.

9.7.0 Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Chelicerata, (spiders, scorpions)
Acaricides
Subphylum Myriapoda, myriapods (millipedes, centipedes)
Subphylum Crustacea, (shrimps, crabs, lobsters, barnacles)
Subphylum Hexopoda,(insects)
9.9.0 Daphnia, water flea
9.37.0 Arthropod parasitic diseases
5.0 Prepare insect-fixing solutions
Insects insect pests (websites)
Insects
9.9.1 Ants
11.17 Banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus, Banana weevil borer
11.13 Banana spotting bug, Amblypelta lutescens, fruit-spotting bugs
9.1.6 Bees, honeybee
4.5 Insecticides
4.9 KAA, insect fixing fluid
13.0 Class Insecta (insects)
9.9.1.0 Order Diptera, Drosophila
9.9.2.0 Order Diptera, mosquito
Order Hymenoptera
Order Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths)
Classification
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Hexaopda
Class Insecta
Subclass Pterygota (winged insects)
Order Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
Order Anoplura (sucking lice)
Order Hemiptera (true bugs, plant bugs, cicadas, psyllids, lerps, aphids, scale insects, lac insects, mealy bugs, bed bugs, swimmers, water boatmen, water scorpions, whiteflies, greenflies)
Order Coleoptera (beetles)

9.9.1 Ants
Ants Farm, (Commercial).
3.01 Ants life cycle (Primary)
Ants

9.9.2 Bees, honeybee
See Bees honeybee, (Agriculture).
Beeswax (Chemistry)
Honeybee
Neonicotinoid insecticides
9.171.1 Osmosis with honey on bread

9.10.0 Phylum Mollusca (molluscs)
5.4 Shellfish, molluscs (Primary)
Class Scaphopoda (tusk shells)
Class Cephalopoda (octopuses, squids)

9.11.0 Phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms)
9.11.1 Phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms), classification)
Ascophyllum, Family Fucaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
Ascophyllum nodosum, only species in genus Ascophyllum, rockweed, knotted kelp, Norwegian kelp, knotted wrack, egg wrack, cold water seaweed, (garden fertilizer), Fucaceae, North Atlantic Ocean.
Dried herb sold as "frond powder" and "flakes".

Cutleria, Family Cutleriaceae, Class Phaeophyceae, Cutleria multifida, has 48 chromosomes.

Desmarestia, Family Desmarestiaceae, Class Phaeophyceae, Desmarestia ligulata, colour changer, flattened weed, sea sorrel

Dictyota, Family Dictyotaceae, Class Phaeophyceae, doubling weed, in Florida rapid asexual reproduction from fragments | Diterpenes | Dictyota binghamiae, mermaid's glove, up to 40 m length

Durvillaea, Family Durvillaeaceae, Class Phaeophyceae, southern bull kelp, prolific growth, used as garden fertilizer
Composting Liquid Seaweed, Tasmanian bull kelp
Durvillaea antarctica and Durvillaea poha, buoyant fronds holds air so may drift long distances

Ecklonia, Family Lessoniaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
9.1.6 Ecklonia

Ectocarpus, Family Ectocarpaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
Leather kelp, (Ectocarpus silicosis), hair-like, found everywhere, Ectocarpaceae

Fucus Family Fucaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
Bladder wrack, (Fucus vesiculosus), kelp, seaweed with buoyancy bladders, | chlorophyll | yellow fucoxanthin |, herbal medicine, Algae, Fucaceae
Dried herb sold as seaweed frond pieces.
Toothed wrack, (Fucus serratus), serrated wrack, olive-brown, dichotomous branching, discoid holdfast, north Atlantic Ocean, Fucaceae
Spiral wrack, (Fucus spiralis), intertidal brown seaweed, can tolerate desiccation on upper shore, Europe, Fucaceae

9.1.7 Neptune's necklace, (Hormosira banksii), Phaeophyceae

Laminaria, Family Laminariaceae, Class Phaeophyceae
Oarweed, (Laminaria digitata), kombu, kelp horsetail, laminarin, laminaran, harvested offshore for making alginic acid used in cosmetics, fertiliser, extract potash and of iodine, traditional medicine abortifacient, inducing labour, Europe, Morocco, Laminariaceae.
Dried herb sold as frond powder.

Ma-konbu, (Laminaria japonica), widely harvested edible seaweed, was the original source of MSG, monosodium glutamate, | Monosodium glutamate MSG | 16.3.2.9 Phycocolloids, Polysaccharide gums | China, Japan, Korea, Laminariaceae

Giant kelp, (Macrocystis pyrifera), kelp forests | alginates | algin | used to thicken ice cream, edible, North America, Laminariaceae

Bull kelp, (Nereocystis luetkeana), bladder wrack, up to 36 m, north-east coast of North America, Laminariaceae
Sargassum species in Sargasso Sea, Sargassaceae

Brown forking weed, (Bifurcaria bifurcata), occurs in Atlantic coast rock pools, Sargassaceae

Wakame, (Undaria pinnatifida), miyeok, Asian kelp, large brown edible seaweed, used in miso soup, invasive, Alaeiaceae,
Algae
1. Archaeplastida
9.0.14 Rhodophyta (red algae)
2. Rhizaria
9.0.13 Cercozoa
9.1.3 Foraminifera
9.1.4 Radiolaria
3. Heterokonts
9.10 Class Bacillariophyceae, diatoms
9.11 Class Chrysophyceae, golden-brown algae
9.14 Class Dinoflagellata, dinoflagellates
9.15 Class Euglenoidea, Euglena
9.16 Class Haptophyta, haptophytes
9.19 Class Oomycetes, water moulds
9.20 Class Phaeophyceae, brown algae
9.21 Class Raphidophyceae, raphidophytes
9.22 Class Ulvophyceae, ulvophytes
9.23 Class Xanthophyceae, yellow-green algae
Algae
Algae a simple, non-flowering, and typically aquatic plant of a large group that includes the seaweeds and many single-celled forms.
Algae contain chlorophyll but lack true stems, roots, leaves, and vascular tissue.
Euglenophyta, e.g. Euglena.
Chrysophyta, golden algae.
Pyrrophyta, fire algae, luciferin.
Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta, and Rhodophyta.
Protists
Sacordina (protists that move using pseudopod).
Mastigophora (protists that move using flagella).
Ciliaphora (protists that move using cilia), and Sporozoa (protists that form spores).
As for the plant-like protists (Subkingdom Phycobionta), there are also various phyla: Euglenophyta, Chrysophyta (diatoms), Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates).
Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae), and Rhodophyta (red algae).
The Cyanophyta or blue-green algae, which are prokaryotic organisms, are traditionally included in this group but in modern classification, they are now grouped together with bacteria under Kingdom Monera.

9.1.4 Radiolaria, Phylum Actinopoda
Radiolaria, amoeboid, common marine plankton, Anthocyrtium
Actinopoda, radiolarians, are plankton with shells that form geologic beds, e.g. Acanthometra, Goldieria sulphuraria lives in hot springs.

9.1.3 Foraminifera, Phylum Foraminifera
Foraminifera, amoeboid, common marine benthos, Notodendrodes
Foraminifera, have a calcium carbonate shell and send out many fine strands of cytoplasm.
They are a component of limestone, because the shells form limestone rocks, e.g. White cliffs of Dover, England, e.g. Notodendrodes, Elphidium, Globigerinoides.

Cercozoa Phylum Cercozoa
Cercozoa, amoeboids and flagellates, "slime mould", Plasmodiophora brassicae club root fungus of crucifers, e.g. swede
Cercozoa, amoeboids and flagellates (amoeba with silica shell)
Euglypha, Trinema, cabbage club root fungus Plasmodiophora
Cercozoa, amoebae, flagellates, common in soil, Cercomonas

Rhodophyta Rhodophyta Division
Rhodophyta, red algae
Dried herb sold as fronds powder.
7.8.6.2 Carrageenans, red seaweed, Rhodophyceae
Carrageenans are mainly marine, as single cells or filaments. More complexly structured algae are red, brown, olive-green, grass-green.
They have no motile cells, complex sexual reproduction, are used to make agar, dulse, nori, contain phycocyanin and phycoerythrin in chloroplasts.
Bangia, Corallina, Gelidium amansii (agar), Gracilaria, Kappaphycus
Caulerpa cupressoides, zipper green seaweed, USA
Ceratium colours the upper ocean red.
Galaxaura subverticillata Gigartina atropurpurea, giant marine kelp
Gracilaria, kelp, agar
Gymnodinium, causes red tide, algal bloom
Lithothamnium, Rhodolith, corraline red algae
Noctiluca causes bioluminescence.
Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Porphyia, "nori" Japanese food

9.16.1 Amoeba proteus
See diagram 9.38.1: Amoeba
Amoeba proteus is a single cell, aquatic, organism that is constantly changing shape.
The cytoplasm consists of clear jelly-like ectoplasm and granular endoplasm.
A clear rounded area, contractile vacuole, expands and contracts as it collects and expels water to maintain the concentration of the cytoplasm.
A central nucleus controls all the activities.
It moves by forming a pseudopodium (false foot), by the endoplasm flowing into the ectoplasm.
The amoeba flows into the pseudopodium which may be anchored to the substrate by the outer membrane, pellicle or plasma lemma, becoming sticky.
Amoeba feeds on small organisms by flowing around them and enclosing them in a food vacuole, where they are digested.
Reproduction is by simple binary fission, when the amoeba splits into two.
Amoeba avoids dry conditions by forming a spore with an external cyst wall.
Entamoeba species have no contractile vacuole possibly, because the live as parasites in vertebrates.
They have only one or two large blunt pseudopodia.

9.16.2 Entamoeba coli, Phylum Rhizopoda
Entamoeba coli lives in human large intestine, feeding on bacteria and remains of digested food, commensal parasite and is harmless.
It may have up to 8 nuclei when it divides inside a cyst in the faeces.
Infection occurs after ingestion of cysts in fecally-contaminated food or water.
In the small intestine, the cysts break open to release sporozoan trophozoites, which migrate to the large intestine, absorb nutrients, grow and multiply to form cysts.
Do not confuse with:
Escherichia Phylum Proteobacteria, Escherichia coli (E. coli), the names are similar

Entamoeba histolytica, Phylum Rhizopoda
Entamoeba histolytica, causes amoebic dysentery when it attacks the mucous membrane of the intestine, causing blood in stools and peritonitis.
It may also cause abscesses in the liver.
It has 4 nuclei, but no mitochondria.
Entamoeba histolytica causes about 50 million infections world wide, with a death rate of over 100, 000 annually.
Wheatley trichrome staining of the trophozoites, (growing stage when it is absorbing nutrients from the host), is commonly used for diagnosis of amoebic dysentery
Entamoeba histolytica in microscopic faeces specimens, looks like Entamoeba coli.
3.13.5 Heidenhain iron haematoxylin is used to stain mitotic figures in amoeba, after fixation.

9.10.1 Acrasiomycota, slime moulds, Phylum Acrasiomycota
Acrasiomycota, (cellular slime moulds), causes powdery scab on potatoes.
Formerly it was thought to be a fungus hence the "mycota", e.g. Guttulinopsis, Pocheina.

9.10.2 Apicomplexa, Phylum Apicomplexa
Apicomplexa, mainly parasitic, Class Sporozoa
Babesia causes Babesiosis,
Plasmodium vivax causes Malaria,
Cryptosporidium in drinking water causes Cryptosporidiosis,
Toxoplasma gondii causes toxoplasmosis.
Class Microspora, fungus-like protists

9.10.3 Choanozoa, Phylum Choanozoa
Choanozoa, have a single rear flagellum surrounded by a collar and are mainly sessile or colonial and are found in sponges.

9.10.5 Myxomycota, Phylum Myxomycota
Myxomycota, Class Mycetozoa, Myxomycetes (acellular or plasmodial or coenocytic slime moulds)
It is a plasmodium, slime fungus, fungus-like slime moulds.
Most Myxomycota are not fungi.
The Class also includes the giant kelps, e.g. Stemonitis, Physarum polycephalum!

9.10.6 Percolozoa, Phylum Percolozoa

9.10.7 Prasinophyta, Phylum Prasinophyta
Prasinophyta, usually have dark green unicells, with green chloroplasts and flagellae and contain starch, e.g. Monomastix.

9.12.0 Chordata, chordates, Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Urochordata (sea squirts, tunicates)
9.15.0 Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates)
Subclass Dipnoi (lungfishes)
Amphibia (amphibians)
9.22.0 Reptilia (reptiles)
9.23.0 Aves (birds)
9.24.0 Class Mammalia (mammals)
9.35 Rotifers, Succession in a pond community, hay infusion cultures
9.6.1 Phylum Annelida (segmented worms, ringed worms)
9.10.0 Phylum Mollusca (molluscs)
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

9.6.1 Phylum Annelida, ringed worms, segmented worms
8.0 Annelida
Class Polychaeta, bristle worms, polychaetes (paddle-footed annelids, usually marine swimming worms), Nereis ragworm
Class Polychaeta, Sipuncula (sipunculan worms, peanut worms) (Phylum Sipuncula), Sipunculus, Phascolosoma
Class Polychaeta, Echiura, spoon worms, burrow worms, echiuran worms, (marine), Bonellia green spoonworm
Class Oligochaeta, earthworms, angleworms, Lumbricus common earthworm, Allolobophora green worm, Eisenia red wriggler worms
Class Hirudinea (leeches), Hirudo medical leech
Class Pogonophora (beard worms), Riftia giant tube worm

9.7.3 Subphylum Crustacea, crustaceans
Class Malacostraca (crabs, krill, pill bugs, shrimp)
Class Branchiopoda (branchiopods)
Artemia salina (brine shrimp) in inland salt water lakes
Artemia nyos ("Sea-monkey" (toy product)
Order Cladocera (water fleas)
Daphnia pulex
Subclass Cirripedia (barnacles)
Class Ostracoda (ostracods)

9.9.1.0 Order Diptera Drosophila
(true flies, two-winged flies, bee flies, blow flies, blue bottles, bot flies, crane flies, daddy long legs, fruit flies, gall midges, gnats, green bottles, house flies, hover flies, midges, moth flies, sand flies, tsetse flies, vinegar flies)
Suborder Brachycera (circular-seamed flies, muscoid flies, short-horned flies)
Family Drosophilidae (pomace flies, small fruit flies, vinegar flies)
Drosophila melanogaster (common fruit fly)
9.6.0 Drosophila experiments, Mendel's laws

9.9.2.0 Order Diptera mosquito
Suborder Nematocera (long-horned flies)
Family Culicidae (mosquitoes)
Anopheles gambiae (South American mosquito)
Culex tarsalis (North American mosquito)
3.02 Mosquito life cycle
9.9.2.10 Mosquito sprays, insecticides, repellents
32.1.2.1 Mosquito bite clicker, Piezoelectricity (See: 4.)
9.9.2.2 Wolbachia bacteria sterilized mosquito trial

Mosquito sprays insecticides, repellents
DDT
Garlic spray
Malathion Maldison
Methoxychlor
Methoprene C₁₉H₃₄O₃
Bti insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis
Mosquito repellents:
DEET
Allethrin, bioallethrin
Oil of citronella

Wolbachia bacteria sterilized mosquito trial
This breakthrough could support the suppression and potential eradication of Aedes aegypti worldwide.
Published today in PNAS, the landmark trial involved releasing three million male Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in Northern Queensland, sterilised with bacteria called Wolbachia, across three trial sites over a 20-week period during the summer of 2018.
The sterile male insects search out and mate with wild females, preventing the production of offspring.
Scientists returned the following year and found one of the trial sites, Mourilyan in Queensland, was almost devoid of mosquitoes.
CSIRO scientist and UQ Associate Professor, Nigel Beebe, said the trial demonstrates this technique is capable of effectively suppressing mosquito populations.
“During the trial, we saw over 80 per cent of the mosquito population suppressed across our three trial sites.
When we surveyed the sites the following year, we were very encouraged to see the suppression still in effect, with one of our most productive towns for Aedes aegypti almost devoid of this mosquito with a 97 per cent reduction across the following season.
One year on, the mosquito population at the second trial site remained substantially suppressed, while the population fully recovered at the third site.
We are currently investigating the differences observed in the following mosquito season as they are incredibly informative in further developing this technology and in modelling how we could remove this exotic virus-transmitting pest in other locations worldwide.”
The technique can also be used to remove the virus-transmitting Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, that has now established at Australia’s doorstep in the Torres Strait Islands.
5.5 Starfish, echinoderms (Primary)
hr width="100%" size="2">9.15.0 Subphylum Vertebrata, vertebrates
9.16.0 Class Agnatha, Petromyzontida, jawless fish
Cyclostomi (hagfish and lampreys)
Agnathans are the oldest fossils with a skull but no jaws.
Hagfish have no scales, weak eyes under skin, and live deep in the ocean.
Lampreys, lamprey eels are parasitic on river and lake fish, have two eyes and two primitive eyes, are a fishing pest, but good to eat and cook to make jellied eels.

Superclass Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
Class Chondrichthes, cartilaginous fish, elasmobranchs, (sharks, dogfish, stingrays)
Class Osteichthyes, (bony fish, "fish")
9.19.0 Class Sarcopterygii, (Crossopterygii), (lobe-finned fish, coelacanths)
Subclass Dipnoi (lungfishes)
Class Amphibia (amphibians)
9.22.0 Class Reptilia (reptiles)
9.23.0 Class Aves (birds)
9.24.0 Class Mammalia (mammals)
9.217 Blood flow in a fish
9.19.0 Class Sarcopterygii, (Crossopterygii), (lobe-finned fish, coelacanths)
Lobe-finned fish have muscular lobes in the fins, attached to the appendicular skeleton.
Such fins are thought to have paved the way for the limbs of the first land vertebrates to evolve.
Coelacanths reside at ocean depths of as much as 800 m.
Female coelacanths reach about 2 m long and weigh 110 kg.
Coelacanth classification
Genus: Latimeria | Species chalumnae | Family Latimeriidae | Class Sarcopterygii | Subphylum Vertebrata | Phylum Chordata | Kingdom Animalia
9.1.6 Blood flow in a frog (Experiments)

9.22.0 Class Reptilia, reptiles
(snakes, lizards, crocodiles, alligators, turtles, tortoises, tuataras)
Snakes
4.06 Snake bite
Turtles
1. Hard-shelled sea turtles
Family Cheloniidae
Loggerhead turtle Carella caretta, Pacific Ridley turtle Lepidochelys olivacea,
Flat back turtle Natator depressus
2. Leathery sea turtle Family Dermochelyidae
Leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea
3. Side-necked freshwater turtles
Long-necked turtles Genus Chelodina, Snapping turtles Genus Elseya
Southern snapping turtle, Elseya albagula, Mary River turtle,
Elusor macrurus, Snake-necked turtle, Chelodina longicollis, Genus Emdura, Genus Pseudoemdura, Genus Rheodyte, Helmeted turtles
In Australia, a freshwater turtle is popularly known as a "tortoise", but in other countries a tortoise is a domed-shaped terrestrial reptile.
4. Pig-nosed turtle
Family Carettochelydidae, Carettochelys insculpa
5. Red-eared slider
Genus Trachemys, Red-eared slider Trachemys scripta elegans, the most common pet turtle

Geckos
Asian house gecko Hemidactylus frenatus, "the chuck chuck", Flap-footed lizards, "legless lizards", Family Pygopodidae
Worm lizards, Genus Aprasia
Skinks, Family Scincidae, Blue tongued lizards, Genus Tiliqua, Eastern Blue tongue lizard Tiliqua scincoides
Bicycle lizards, Genus Amphibolurus
Ctenophorus cristatus crested dragon bicycle lizard, it runs on hind limbs
Moloc horridus, it has thorn-like spines and eats ants
Genus Pogona bearded dragons Monitors, goannas
Family Varanidae, Genus Varanus, Australian lace monitor
Varanus varius uses termites nests to hatch eggs.

9.23.0 Class Aves, birds
Birds (Plastomount, slides), (Modern Teaching Aids), (Commercial).
See Birds Queensland Ornithological Society.
Birds
6.3 Chicken life cycle (Primary)
Chicken project (Agriculture)
Duck project (Agriculture)

9.24.0 Class Mammalia, mammals
3.06 Care for cats
3.1.0 Care for goats
4.25 Care for dogs
Goat Project
9.25.0 Humans, Class Mammalia (mammals)
Pig Project
23.2.18 Rats (pest of cocoa)

9.24.1 Rabbit, Classification of a rabbit
Kingdom: Animalia, Animals
Phylum, Division: Chordata, Subphylum Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family : Leporidae
Genus and species, binomial classification: Oryctolagus cuniculus, rabbit, European rabbit.

9.25.0 Class Mammalia, Humans
9.11.0 Human body
Cells Human cheek cells
9.24.0 Human genetics
10.9.8 Human immunodeficiency virus, (HIV)
4.3.21 Human, Micro-organisms and Personal Hygiene
9.0 Human physiology and Health
9.29 Human population growth
10.6.0 Human relationships
10.0 Human reproduction

Conifers, Coniferophyta Division
The Coniferophyta, or Pinophyta, or Coniferae, commonly known as conifers, are vascular land plants containing a single class, Pinopsida.
Conifers are cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms, perennial woody plants with secondary growth.
Conifers include the pine, fir, spruce, other cone-bearing trees and shrubs, and yews
Coniferophyta, Pinophyta, conifers are seed-bearing plants with ovules on the edge of an open sporophyll.
The sporophylls are arranged in cone-like structures.

Conifers are pyramidal or conical trees with long straight stems that taper to an apical growing point, the leader.
The almost horizontal branches bear narrow needle-shaped leaves.
The original tap root dies leaving shallow roots that let the tree be blown over by storms.
Smaller roots have no root hairs, but have a sheath of fungus that penetrates into the root epidermis.
Small microspore cones at the ends of branches produce microspores, pollen grains.
Large megaspore cones are made up of leaf-like sporophylls that contain the ova.
The fertilized ova develop to form seeds released when the woody cone opens.
Most conifers produce woody cones by lignification of the seed-bearing sporophylls, but Juniperus, Podocarpus and Taxus have soft fruit.
See diagram 9.50: Pine tree cone.
See diagram 9.50.1: Swelling movements.

Experiments
1. Look for a microspore cone, pollen grain, pollen tube, microsporophyll, microspores (pollen) megasporophyll, micropyle, ovule, megaspore, and bract.
2. Examine twigs of Pinus in summer.
The twigs should show evidence of at least three years' growth.
Observe the structure of purely vegetative twigs, the position and structure of seed cones of varying age, the position and structure of staminate cones.
3. Examine the male and female cones of Pinus.
Dig up some shallow roots and examine the mycorrhiza under the microscope.
Dissect first year, second year and third year seed cones and note their general structure.
Note the seeds lying naked on the cone scales.
4. Remove a megasporophyll from a first year cone and look for the two megasporangia (ovules) on the upper surface.
The bract scale is on the lower surface.
5. Examine the structure in longitudinal section under high power.
6. Examine a sporophyll from a second year cone in the same way.
7. Examine a third year cone.
Remove a megasporophyll and note the seeds with their wings attached.
Cut a longitudinal section through a seed and examine under low power.
8. Dissect a staminate cone and note the form of the microsporophylls (stamens).
Crush one of them into a drop of glycerine and examine the pollen grains under high power.
Examine transverse and longitudinal sections of staminate cones.
9. Examine the structure of the current year stem and the older stems by means of transverse and longitudinal sections.
Examine the tracheids, the sieve tubes, the medullary rays and the resin canals.
10. Cut a transverse section of a leaf.

9.11.1
Marchantiophyta Experiments
1. Collect plants from moist sheltered places, e.g. behind waterfalls, in cooler periods of the year.
2. Collect plants of Pellia in the early spring.
Observe the leafy gametophyte with rhizoids at its base and the capsule or sporogonium.
Note the presence of dark green globular capsules just behind the growing points of some thallus branches.
Also, note small warty prominences further back from the tip and either side of the midrib.
These prominences are old antheridia cavities, now empty.
Dissect out a sporogonium, noting the short seta.
Crush the capsule into a drop of water.
Observe the wall with its characteristic thickenings, the spores and the elaters.
Cut a transverse section of the thallus, mount in water and note the structure, similar to the lamina of Fucus, but attached to the soil, with hair-like rhizoids.

3. Collect Pellia plants in the early summer.
Observe the presence of antheridia and cut sections through the thallus where they occur.
Note also involucres just behind the tips of some branches and cut longitudinal sections through these to see the archegonia.
Look for the thallus, gemma cups, rhizoids, sperm with two flagella, male thallus, antheridium, female thallus, and archegonium.
Liverworts are the most lowly land plants with single-celled rhizoids and no clearly-differentiated stem and leaves.
They grow in moist shady habitats on wet rocks or near shallow streams, usually clumped together to save moisture.
The plant is the gametophyte generation, a broad branching thallus.
Together the plants look like little leaves clumped together and attached to the damp soil by hair-like rhizoids.
The antheridia produce swimming sperm that fertilize an ovum in the archegonium to form the zygote that grows into the sporophyte.
The sporophyte has no chlorophyll and remains a sort of parasite with no connection to the soil, but attached to the archegonium.
It releases spores that develop into the next gametophyte generation.
Marchantia reproduces rapidly by vegetative buds produced in gemma cups.
The sexual organs, the antheridia and archegonia are formed on different plants.
Collect plants from moist sheltered places, e.g. behind waterfalls, in cooler periods of the year.

9.2.5 Moss experiments
1. Examine capsules of Funaria or other mosses at different stages of maturity and note the peristome and the method of liberation of spores.
If you fix a cut off capsule in wax, you can examine the peristome under low power.
Breath on the capsule to show the hygroscopic movements of the peristome teeth.

2. Collect protonema of Polytrichum from hedgerows or on the soil in flower pots.
Polytrichum spores germinate to form a filamentous stage called a protonema.
Later, buds form on the protonema to grow into the moss plant.
Polytrichum often mingles with Vaucheria, but Polytrichum is septate.
Observe the green filaments with transverse septa and the brownish rhizoids with oblique septa.
Observe buds on the green filaments and young plants in various stages of development.

3. Look for the male and female plant, female plant with attached sporogonium, leaves, stem, rhizoids, sporogonium capsule, sporogonium seta.
4. Collect common woodland mosses usually found in compact colonies or cushions in damp shady places.
Some grow on the damper side or south side of tree trunks and fence posts.
Observe the erect stems, small leaves, and the rhizoids that attach the plant to the soil.
Look for terminal cups, sexual organs, and tubular capsules that contain asexual spores.
Some tufts of plants bear rosette-like antheridia cups containing spores.
Dissect out the contents of one of these into water and note the structure of the antheridia and paraphyses, sterile hairs or filaments that bear the spore-making structures, the sporangia.
The archegonia cups that house the ovum are less conspicuous, so you may have to dissect more than one apex to find an archegonium.

5. Use four areas of activity: 1. field observations, 2. spore culture, 3. cultivation of gametophytes, 4. investigation of spore and leafy gametophyte growth to study the times of spore discharge, growth of the protonema, leafy gametophyte production, sex organ production (archegonia and
antheridia), fertilization, growth of sporophyte, relative importance of reproduction by spores or gemmae and tubers.
You will need information on local temperatures, day length, rainfall, to relate to observations of life cycles.
6. The upper part of the moss capsule (sporangium) may be specialized for gradual spore discharge.
The life cycle of moss begins with asexual reproduction.
Leaf-like moss grow thin, brown stalk with capsules at the top.
The capsules contain tiny spores instead of sex cells.
Spores are the cells that can develop into a new individual without fertilization.
Mosses reproduce by means of spores (small blue spheres) which are dispersed from the mouth of the capsule by the numerous rays (orange and brown), that snap open.
Grow moss spores can be grown under sterile conditions, e.g. Funaria hygrometrica, Clubmoss, and study which factors of the environment controls germination, growth, differentiation of leafy gametophytes.
Mature spore filled capsules are mostly available in the latter half of the year in the Southern Hemisphere, but if collected in February, March it may be hard to sterilize.
A problem is how to count the numbers of spores per capsule, per culture, or the number of leafy gametophytes that form.
Leafy gametophytes grow from the protonema.

Clubmoss, Lycopodiophyta Division
Kingdom: Plantae
Marchantiophyta (liverworts)
Bryophyta (mosses)
Anthocerotophyta (hornworts)
Tracheophyta (vascular plants)
Selaginella experiments
See diagram 9.49: Selaginella.
1. Look for the Selaginella plant, cone, scale leaves, lateral leaves, rhizophores.
Observe the microsporangia containing many microspores, and megasporangium containing four megaspores.
The Clubmoss have club-shaped cones that bear spores and are known as "fern allies".
Plants of the Selaginella genus, spikemoss, are small prostrate plants with four rows of small leaves on the axis.
They live in damp places.
Selaginella kraussiana and Selaginella martensii are grown in greenhouses.
The Selaginella plant is a sporophyte bearing microsporangia and megasporangia in the same cone.
A microsporangium produces microspores to be dropped onto damp soil and later eject a swimming sperm.
The larger megasporangium produces megaspores to be dropped onto the soil, germinate in rainy weather, and produce a female prothallus with an ovum inside.
The ovum is fertilized by the sperm to form a zygote that grows into the next sporophyte generation.
Both types of spores have a tri-radiate ridge from origin in the tetrads following meiosis.

Experiments
1. Collect the microspores and megaspores from a ripe cone and scatter the spores on moist absorbent paper.
Observe the development of young sporophytes.
2. In Lycopodium note the presence of definite cones.
Examine the sporangia, both externally and by cutting sections of the cones.

Ferns experiments
See diagram 9.48.0: Dryopteris.
See diagram 9.48.2: Pteridium, bracken fern.
See diagram 9.48.3: Pteridium prothallus, sporophyte.
See diagram 9.48.4: Fern life cycle.
Ferns are vascular plants with xylem and phloem, true leaves, but no seeds.
Hygrometrica, Clubmoss, They are mostly terrestrial, but Marsilea lives in swamps.

The stag's horn is a common epiphyte in rainforests.
The asexual phase, the sporophyte, is the large fern that develops spores in sporangia.
The sexual phase, the gametophyte, develops the sexual organs.
It is an insignificant little plant like a little flat leaf, the size of a fingernail.
Experiments
1. Examine Dryopteris, wood fern.
Note the rhizome and adventitious roots, stem and compound leaves, fronds.
Note the sori (singular: sorus) under the recurved fronds where spores are formed.
Dryopteris has rounded sori.
Pteridium has long sori along the margins of the pinnules.
Look for the sori under a leaf, compound leaf or frond, coiled young leaf, rhizome, and roots.
2. Cut a transverse section of a pinnule of Dryopteris to pass through a sorus.
Observe the tissues of the leaf, the placenta, sporangia in various stages of development in the indusium.
3. Dehiscence of fern sporangia Pteridium
Scrape some ripe sporangia into a drop of glycerine on a slide.
The glycerine withdraws water from the annulus cells and thus causes the opening of the sporangia.
You can slow the movements of the annulus with glycerine.
Scrape other sporangia on to a warm slide and observe the annulus movements under the microscope.
4. Fern prothallus Pteridium
To grow fern prothalli, place a soaked flower pot inside a larger one, packing the space between with wet sphagnum or peat.
Allow a mature frond bearing a sorus to dry on a piece of paper and then scatter the spores so obtained on the inner surface of the small flower pot.
Stand the pots in an inch or so of water and cover the top of the pots with a sheet of glass.
Green prothalli will soon appear, and you can observe successive stages in their development.
Observe the archegonia and the liberation of sperms from the antheridia.
Young sporophytes will develop if you water the prothalli after they show archegonia.