School Science Lessons
Topic 04
2024-06-14
Laboratory health hazards
(topic04)
Table of contents
5.0 Health hazards
3.0 Health effects of chemicals
2.0 Physical hazards
1.0 Poisons, First Aid
4.01 Toxicity
4.02 High toxicity chemicals
4.0 Toxicity of metals and metal compounds
15.10.0 Chemicals Not permitted in schools, Australia
15.9.0 Cryogenic substances
15.1.1 Dust explosions
15.7.0 Flammable organic chemicals
15.8.0 Flammable organic chemicals with low flash point below 32oC
15.1.0 Hazards: Explosive, Flammable, Oxidizing, Poison, Harmful, Corrosive, Irritant
5.0 Health hazards
5.1 Acute toxicity
9.1.8 Escape from submerged car
5.2 Serious eye damage / eye irritation
5.3 Respiratory sensitization or skin sensitization
5.4 Germ cell mutagenicity
5.5 Carcinogen
5.6 Reproductive toxicity
5.7 Specific target organ toxicity
5.8 Aspiration hazard
3.0 Health effects of chemicals
3.0 Extremely toxic substances
3.1 Highly toxic substances
3.2 Very toxic substances
3.3 Toxic substances
3.4 Harmful substances
3.5 Corrosive substances
3.6 Irritant substances
3.7 Sensitizing substances, by inhalation, by skin contact
3.8 Carcinogenic substances
3.9 Mutagenic substances
3.10 Environment danger from substances
2.0 Physical hazards
2.1 Explosive
2.3 Flammable aerosols
2.5 Gases under pressure
2.7 Flammable solids
2.4 Oxidizing gases
2.8 Self-reactive substances and mixtures
2.9 Pyrophoric liquids
2.10 Pyrophoric solids
2.11 Self-heating substances and mixtures
2.12 Substances and mixtures that, in contact with water, emit flammable gases
2.13 Oxidizing liquids
2.14 Oxidizing solids
2.15 Organic peroxides
2.16 Corrosive to metals
2.11 Self-heating substances and mixtures
4.0 Toxicity of metals and metal compounds
4.1 Aluminium toxicity
4.2 Barium toxicity
4.3 Boron toxicity
4.4 Calcium toxicity
4.5 Chromium, chromic acid toxicity
4.6 Cobalt toxicity
4.7 Copper toxicity
4.8 Lead toxicity
4.9 Magnesium toxicity
4.10 Mercury toxicity
4.11 Nickel toxicity
4.12 Potassium toxicity
4.13 Silver toxicity
4.14 Sodium toxicity
4.15 Strontium toxicity
4.16 Zinc toxicity
4.01 Toxicity
by Dr Hugh Cartwright, Chemistry Department, Oxford University
Toxicity is the capacity of a substance to cause harm.
All chemicals should be considered as partially toxic.
The toxicity of a substance is determined by the quantity of that substance required to cause harm.
Risks of injury associated with any particular chemical relate directly to the route of entry, i.e. ingestion, inhalation or skin contact.
A substance that may be very toxic by ingestion may be quite safe to handle if it is not ingested.
Toxicity is usually reported as an LD50 oral rate, i.e. the lethal dose that will kill 50% of a sample rat population if administered orally.
The following values are approximate indicators for ingestion:
| very toxic: LD50 < 25 mg / kg body weight | toxic: LD50< 200 mg / kg body weight | harmful: LD50 < 2000 mg / kg body weight.
The following chemicals are poisons and should never be used in a school laboratory:
| carbon tetrachloride CCl4, (tetrachloromethane) | carbon disulfide CS2 | chloroform CCl3 | mercury Hg, (mercury metal, all mercury salts) | phenol C6H5OH, (carbolic acid) | phosphorus, P (white phosphorus, yellow phosphorus) |.
4.02 High toxicity chemicals
by Dr Hugh Cartwright, Chemistry Department, Oxford University
The following list contains some of the chemicals that present a particularly severe risk to health, (high toxicity chemicals):
* acetic anhydride, acrolein, acrylamide, allyl alcohol, allyl chloride, aniline, antimony compounds, anisidines, arsenic compounds,
* barium salts, p-benzoquinone, benzoyl peroxide, benzoyl chloride, beryllium and its compounds, boron tribromide, boron trifluoride, bromine, butylamines,
* chlorine, chloronitrobenzenes, chromium compounds, cresols, cyanides,
* diazomethane, n,n-dimethylaniline, dimethyl sulfate,
* epichlorohydrin, ethanolamine, ethylene chlorohydrin,
* fluorine, formaldehyde, formic acid,
* hydrazine, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen peroxide,
* indium salts, iodine, iodomethane, isocyanates,
* maleic anhydride, mercaptans, mercury and mercury compounds,
* nickel carbonyl, nitric acid, nitrobenzene, nitro compounds,
* osmium salts, oxalic acid, ozone,
* phenol, phenylene diamines, phenyl hydrazine, phosgene, phosphorus pentachloride, phosphorus pentasulfide, phosphorus trichloride, phthalic hydride, propylamines, pyridine,
* selenium compounds, soluble silver salts, sodium-mercury amalgam, sulfur dioxide,
* tellurium compounds, thallium compounds, tetrachlorethane, toluidines,
* xylidines.
2.1 Explosives
An explosive substance or mixture is a solid or liquid substance that is in itself capable by chemical reaction of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure, and at such a speed, as to cause damage to the surroundings.
Pyrotechnic substances are included, even when they do not evolve gases.
2.3 Flammable aerosols
A non-refillable receptacle made of metal, glass or plastics and containing a gas compressed, liquefied or dissolved under pressure, and fitted with a release device allowing the contents to be ejected.
Category 1 Aerosol contains 85% of flammable components and the chemical heat of combustion is 30 kJ / g
Category 2 Aerosol contains 1% flammable components, or the heat of combustion is 20 kJ / g).
2.4 Oxidizing gases
Gas by providing oxygen, may cause or contribute to the combustion of other material more than air does.
2.5 Gases under pressure
Gases in a receptacle at a pressure not less than 200 kPa (gauge), or is liquefied, or is liquefied and refrigerated.
2.6 Flammable liquids
Liquid having a flash point of not more than 60oC.
2.7 Flammable solids
Solids that are readily combustible or may cause or contribute to fire through friction.
2.8 Self-reactive substances and mixtures
Thermally unstable liquid or solid substances or mixtures liable to undergo a strongly exothermic decomposition even without participation of oxygen or air.
2.9 Pyrophoric liquids
Liquid catches fire spontaneously if exposed to air.
2.10 Pyrophoric solids
Solid catches fire spontaneously if exposed to air.
2.11 Self-heating substances and mixtures
Substances which react with air and without energy supply, and are liable to self heat and ignite, but only when in large amounts and after long periods of time.
2.12 Substances and mixtures that, in contact with water, emit flammable gases.
2.13 Oxidizing liquids
Liquid not necessarily combustible that may contribute to the combustion of other material by yielding oxygen.
2.14 Oxidizing solids
Solids not necessarily combustible that may contribute to the combustion of other material by yielding oxygen.
2.15 Organic peroxides
Organic substance that contains the bivalent -O-O- structure, where one or both of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by organic radicals.
Organic peroxides are thermally unstable substances that can undergo exothermic self-accelerating decomposition.
2.16 Corrosive to metals
A substance or a mixture that by chemical action will materially damage or destroy metals.
3.0 Extremely toxic substances
Teacher only handles with great caution.
3.1 Highly toxic substances
Teacher must ensure effective controls are implemented.
3.2 Very toxic substances
Substances and preparations that in very low quantities cause death or acute or chronic damage to health when inhaled, swallowed or absorbed via the skin.
3.3 Toxic substances
Substances and preparations that in low quantities cause death or acute or chronic damage to health when inhaled, swallowed or absorbed via the skin.
Teachers must ensure effective controls are implemented.
Handle with great caution.
3.4 Harmful substances
Substances and preparations that may cause death or acute or chronic damage to health when inhaled, swallowed or absorbed via the skin.
Intake of a small amount would probably not cause sickness, e.g. magnesium sulfate.
Intake of large amounts may cause sickness, i.e. copper sulfate.
Intake of a small amount may cause sickness, i.e. sodium tetraborate.
3.5 Corrosive substances
Substances and preparations that may, on contact with living tissues, destroy them.
3.6 Irritant substances
Non-corrosive substances and preparations that, through immediate, prolonged or repeated contact with the skin or mucous membrane, may cause inflammation.
3.7 Sensitizing substances, by inhalation, by skin contact
Substances and preparations that, if they are inhaled or if they penetrate the skin, can elict a reaction by hypersensitization such that on further exposure to the substance or preparation, characteristic adverse effects are formed.
3.8 Carcinogenic substances
Substances and preparations that, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may induce cancer or increase its incidence.
1-naphthol, C10H7OH, α-naphthol, 1-hydroxynaphthalene, naphthalene-1-ol, Toxic if ingested, may form carcinogenic compounds
2-naphthol, C10H7OH, beta-naphthol, 2-hydroxynaphthalene, Toxic if ingested, reactions may form carcinogenic compounds
Formaldehyde with hydrochloric acid may form carcinogenic bis(chloromethyl) ether.
Naphthylamine, 1-naphthylamine, C10H7NH2, α-naphthylamine, Extremely toxic, possible carcinogen, Not permitted in schools
Nickel (II) chloride, nickel chloride pigment, Toxic if ingested, carcinogenic, allergic reaction, use only < 2 mL of 0.1 M solution
Nickel (II) oxide, nickel oxide pigment, green glaze for craft, Highly toxic if ingested, carcinogenic to lungs
Trichlorethylene, trichlorethene C2HCl3, Toxic if ingested or inhaled, carcinogenic, ozone-depleting chemical being phased out
3.9 Mutagenic substances
Substances and preparations that, if they are inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may induce heritable genetic defects or increase their incidence.
Cannabis is known to be both mutagenic and carcinogenic, as well as destructive to lung tissue.
3.10 Environment danger from substances
Substances and preparations that, were they to enter into the environment, would present or might present an immediate or delayed danger.
4.1 Aluminium toxicity
The metal aluminium itself is not generally regarded as a poison.
The toxicity of any compound will be determined by the nature of the anion with which the metal is combined.
Alum, potassium alum, has the formula: Al2(SO4)3.K2(SO4).24H2O.
4.2 Barium toxicity
The soluble barium salts such as the chloride and sulfide are poisonous when taken by mouth.
The insoluble sulfate used in radiography is non-poisonous.
The usual result of exposure to the sulfide, oxide and carbonate is irritation of the eyes, nose and throat and of the skin.
4.3 Boron toxicity
Boron itself is not highly toxic, but accidental poisonings have been reported, from boric acid (boracic acid), oral ingestion of borates, and absorption of boric acid from wounds and burns.
4.4 Calcium toxicity
Compounds of calcium should be considered toxic only when they contain a toxic component.
Calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide have caustic reactions and are therefore irritating to the skin and respiratory system.
4.5 Chromium toxicity
Chromic acid and its salts have a highly corrosive action on the skin and mucous membrane.
Chromate salts are recognized carcinogens.
The red, orange and yellow pigments of chromium contain the highly toxic carcinogenic Cr (VI), and are not permitted in schools.
The green pigments of chromium contain the less toxic Cr (III), e.g. lead chromate (yellow 34), chromium (III) oxide (green 17).
4.6 Cobalt toxicity
The toxicity of cobalt itself and most cobalt salts is low.
The toxicity of the compound will depend upon the anion with which cobalt is combined.
4.7 Copper toxicity
The salts copper chloride and copper (II) sulfate have been reported as causing irritation of the skin and conjunctivas.
Copper oxide is irritating to the eyes and upper respiratory tract.
The ingestion of large amounts of copper (II) sulfate can have fatal effects.
4.8 Lead toxicity
Cases of lead poisoning may occur:
1. by inhalation of dusts, fumes, mists or vapours,
2. by ingestion of lead compounds introduced into the mouth on food, tobacco, fingers, and through the skin, particularly if organic lead compounds.
Lead is a cumulative poison.
Increasing amounts build up in the body and eventually a point is reached where symptoms and disability occur.
Of the various compounds, the carbonate, the monoxide and the sulfate are considered to be more toxic than metallic lead or other lead compounds.
4.9 Magnesium toxicity
Poisoning can result from prolonged exposure to fumes or dusts.
4.10 Mercury toxicity
DO NOT USE MERCURY IN SCHOOL SCIENCE EXPERIMENTS
DO NOT STORE MERCURY IN THE SCHOOL LABORATORY
1. A number of mercury compounds can cause skin irritation and can be absorbed through the skin, leading to mercury poisoning.
Mercury compounds and the metal itself may enter the body as vapours of fumes or dusts.
Some can cause kidney damage while others can cause irreversible damage to the central nervous system.
Mercuric compounds are generally more toxic than mercurous compounds.
Give any mercury stored in the school laboratory to a government laboratory.
2. Mercury vapour is toxic and may damage the nervous system.
Mercury enters the body by inhalation, ingestion or through the skin.
Mercury vaporizes at the temperature at which water freezes.
The vapour is odourless, tasteless, and colourless.
Chronic exposure may result in cumulative poisoning with nervous and psychic symptoms.
3. Students may observe mercury in a mercury glass thermometer.
However, the teacher must keep hold of the thermometer and not leave it on the bench where it may roll off and break on the floor.
If mercury spills from a broken thermometer, immediately remove the students from the room and open the windows.
Close doors opening into corridors.
Pick up all the mercury with a damp cloth or a water suction pump.
Sprinkle zinc powder or sulfur powder or agricultural spray that contains sulfur over the area of the spillage.
These substances react with mercury to form an inert material that does not vaporize.
Collect the mercury and zinc or sulfur with a wet cloth or use a dustpan and broom to gather the mercury into one small mass.
Put the mercury in a plastic container that can be sealed tightly.
Give the mercury recovered to a government laboratory.
Contamination by many small globules left in cracks and crevices is possible after most mercury has been removed.
Keep zinc dust or powdered sulfur handy in the laboratory.
Report any mercury spillage to the principal who may ask health authorities for advice on any further safety action.
4. Mercury is toxic when inhaled or taken internally or absorbed through the skin.
Most mercury compounds are highly toxic if ingested or absorbed through the skin.
Mercury vapour is highly toxic when inhaled and is a cumulative poison.
The nervous system is very sensitive to all forms of mercury.
Exposure to high levels of any types of mercury can permanently damage the brain, kidneys, and developing foetus.
Mercury also accumulates in the body.
Both mercury and its compounds have high acute (short-term) and have high chronic (long-term) toxicity on aquatic life.
Eating fish contaminated with mercury has caused poisoning in humans, birds and land animals exposed in the same manner could also be poisonous.
There is not sufficient data to determine the acute toxicity of mercury and its compounds on plants, birds or land animals.
Mercury and its compounds are highly persistent in water and the environment and will bioaccumulate or concentrate in the tissues of fish.
These concentrations will be considerably higher than the water from which the fish is taken.
Mercury emitted to the environment will remain for years.
In areas of mercury contamination, larger and older fish tend to have higher levels of mercury if they eat local smaller fish.
4.11 Nickel toxicity
Although nickel and most salts of nickel are generally not considered toxic, nickel (II) compounds are carcinogenic.
4.12 Potassium toxicity
Toxicity of the compounds is variable.
The potassium ion is practically non-toxic, hence the toxicity of potassium compounds would depend upon the anion involved.
4.13 Silver toxicity
The silver ion is intensely corrosive to tissue.
4.14 Sodium toxicity
Toxicity of sodium varies with the compound.
The sodium ion is considered non-toxic.
The toxicity of sodium compounds is frequently, though not always, because of the anion involved.
4.15 Strontium toxicity
The strontium ion has a low order of toxicity.
It is chemically and biologically similar to calcium.
The toxicity of the compounds is considered to be dependent upon the anion involved.
4.16 Zinc toxicity
Although zinc is not inherently a toxic element, small doses of soluble zinc salts cause nausea and vomiting.
Larger doses cause violent vomiting and purging.
Zinc chloride. because of its caustic action, can produce skin ulcers.
5.1 Acute toxicity
Acute toxicity, from "Health hazards" (Draft Australian criteria for the classification of hazardous chemicals)
Acute toxicity refers to those adverse effects occurring following oral or dermal administration of a single dose of a substance or a mixture, or multiple doses given within 24 hours, or an inhalation exposure of 4 hours.
5.2 Serious eye damage / eye irritation
Serious eye damage / eye irritation, from "Health hazards" (Draft Australian criteria for the classification of hazardous chemicals)
Serious eye damage means the production of tissue damage in the eye, or serious physical decay of vision, following application of a test substance to the anterior surface of the eye, that is not fully reversible within 21 days of application.
5.3 Respiratory sensitization or skin sensitization
Respiratory sensitization / skin sensitization, from "Health hazards" (Draft Australian criteria for the classification of hazardous chemicals)
Respiratory sensitizer means a substance that will lead to hypersensitivity of the airways, following inhalation of the substance.
Skin sensitizer means a substance that will lead to an allergic response following skin contact.
5.4 Germ cell mutagenicity
Germ cell mutagenicity, from "Health hazards" (Draft Australian criteria for the classification of hazardous chemicals)
A mutation means a permanent change in the amount or structure of the genetic material in a cell.
The term "mutation" applies both to heritable genetic changes that may be manifested at the phenotypic level and to the underlying DNA modifications, when known, (including specific base pair changes and chromosomal translocations).
The term "mutagenic" and "mutagen" will be used for agents giving rise to an increased occurrence of mutations in populations of cells and / or organisms.
5.5 Carcinogen
Carcinogen, from "Health hazards" (Draft Australian criteria for the classification of hazardous chemicals)
Carcinogen means a substance or a mixture of substances that induce cancer or increase its incidence.
Substances and mixtures that have induced benign and malignant tumours in experimental studies on animals are considered also to be presumed or suspected human carcinogens, unless there is strong evidence that the mechanism of tumour formation is not relevant for humans.
5.6 Reproductive toxicity
Reproductive toxicity, from "Health hazards" (Draft Australian criteria for the classification of hazardous chemicals)
Reproductive toxicity includes adverse effects on sexual function and fertility in adult males and females.
5.7 Specific target organ toxicity
Specific target organ toxicity, single exposure, from "Health hazards" (Draft Australian criteria for classification of hazardous chemicals)
5.7a Specific target organ toxicity, repeated exposure from "Health hazards".
5.8 Aspiration hazard
Aspiration hazard, from "Health hazards" (Draft Australian criteria for the classification of hazardous chemicals)
Aspiration is the entry of a liquid or solid substance or mixture directly through the oral or nasal cavity, or indirectly from vomiting, into the trachea and lower respiratory system.
Aspiration toxicity includes severe acute effects such as chemical pneumonia, varying degrees of pulmonary injury or death following aspiration.
1.0 Poisons, First Aid
Poison First Aid if ingested
Acetic acid glacial Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Acetone Give water.
Induce vomiting, if large quantity > 20 mL.
Aceto-orcein stain Do not induce vomiting.
Give water or milk.
Acridine Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Adrenaline Give water.
Aluminium chloride Give milk or water.
Aluminium nitrate Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Aluminium oxide Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Ammonia concentrated Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Ammonium dichromate Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Ammonium metavanadate Give 120-240 mL milk or water
Ammonium molybdate Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Ammonium oxalate Give milk or water.
Give calcium as milk, weak limewater , chalk solution
Ammonium persulfate Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Do not induce vomiting
Ammonium thiocyanate Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Iso-amyl alcohol Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Aniline sulfate Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Barium compounds Give water, give magnesium sulfate,
(child: 50 mg / kg, adult: maximum dose 30 g).
Benedict's solution
 Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Bial's reagent (orcinol in concentrated HCl) Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Boric acid Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Bromine liquid Give milk or water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Buffer solution tablets pH 2 Give milk or water.
Give calcium as milk, weak limewater or chalk.
pH 4-10.
Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Butanol, primary, secondary and tertiary Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Calcium acetate monohydrate Give milk or water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Calcium hydroxide Give milk or water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Calcium metal Remove any adhering metal and penetrating particles.
Drench skin with water except when contact has been slight.
Rinse mouth thoroughly with plenty of water.
Calcium oxide Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Camphor Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Carbon disulfide
 Give water.
Do not induce vomiting, may cause seizures.
Carbon tetrachloride Give water.
Do not induce vomiting, may cause seizures.
Chloroform Give water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Chrome alum Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Chromic acetate Give 1 g vitamin C,
then 120-240 mL water or milk.
Chromic sulfate Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Chromic trioxide Do not induce vomiting.
Give 1 g Vitamin C, then 120-240 mL
water or milk.
Copper chloride Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Chromic nitrate Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120, 240 mL milk or water.
copper (II) sulfate Give water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Cyclohexane Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120, 240 mL water or milk.
Delafield's haematoxylin
solution		 Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Di-n-butyl phthalate Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Para dichlorobenzene (1-4-dichlorobenzene)
 Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Dichloromethane Induce vomiting.
Dichlorophenolindophenol sodium Give water.
Induce vomiting.
DCPIP tablets Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Diethyl ether Give water.
Induce vomiting.
DPX mounting medium Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Ethanol absolute Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Ethyl acetate Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Ethylene glycol Induce vomiting.
Euparal Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Formalin 40% Immediately administer milk or water, bread.
Induce vomiting.
Formic acid Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Do not induce vomiting.
n-hexane Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Hydrochloric acid Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Hydrogen peroxide Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Iodine Give milk or water.
Then give milk, starch, or bread to oxidize
iodine to iodide.
Induce vomiting.
Kerosene Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Lead and lead compounds Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Leishman's stain Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Lithium chloride Induce vomiting.
Lithium hydroxide Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Lithium nitrate Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Maleic acid Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Manganese compounds Give water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Mercuric chloride Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Mercury and mercury compounds Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Methanol Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Methylated spirits Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Methyl ethyl kettle Give water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Millon's reagent Give water.
Induce vomiting.
I-naphthol ( α-naphthol)
Nickel sulfate
Nitric acid Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Octanol Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Oxalic acid Give milk or water.
Give calcium as milk, weak limewater , chalk.
Pentanol Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Perchloric acid Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Pentan-1-ol Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Petroleum ether Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Phenyl thiourea Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Phloroglucin Give milk or water.
Give 30-60 mL of castor oil.
Phosphorus pentoxide Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Phosphorus white Give water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Potassium carbonate anhydrous Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Potassium chromate Give milk or water.
Give 1 g Vitamin C.
Potassium dichromate Give milk or water.
Give 1 g vitamin C.
Potassium hydrogen oxalate Give water.
Give calcium as milk, weak limewater , chalk.
Potassium hydroxide Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Potassium iodide Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Potassium nitrate Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Potassium permanganate Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Potassium thiocyanate Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Propanol Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Isopropyl alcohol Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.
Pyrogallol Give milk or water.
(Give 30-60 mL castor oil.)
Quinine sulfate Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Resorcinol Give milk or water.
(Give 30-60 mL castor oil.)
Sebacoyl chloride Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Silver salts Give milk or water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Soda lime
 Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Sodium carbonate Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Sodium chromate Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Sodium dichromate Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate Induce vomiting.
Give water.
Sodium hydroxide Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Sodium hypochlorite Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Sodium iodide Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Sodium metabisulfite Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Sodium metal Remove adhering metal and penetrating particles.
Drench skin with water except where contact slight.
Rinse mouth thoroughly with water.
Give water.
Sodium oxalate Give milk or water.
Give calcium as milk, weak limewater , chalk.
Sodium peroxide Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Sodium phosphate Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Sodium sulfide Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Sulfuric acid Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Sodium persulfate Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Do not induce vomiting.
Sodium tartrate Give 120-240 mL milk or water.
Toluene Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Trace element mixture Give water.
Induce vomiting.
Turpentine (mineral) Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Turpentine (vegetable) Do not induce vomiting.
Give 120-240 mL water or milk.
Xanthydrol Give water.
Induce vomiting if patient not drowsy.

15.1.0 Hazards: Explosive, Flammable, Oxidizing, Poison, Harmful, Corrosive, Irritant
Preparing explosives is Not permitted in schools.
Explosives include gun powder, TNT, nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, solid rocket fuel propellants, manganese heptoxide, "touch powder", (nitrogen triiodide complex formed by ammonia with solid iodine), diesel / ammonium nitrate mixtures.
The classification is based on IMO, (International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code), and the, (ACTDG) Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail.
In this document, hazard classification is shown, (in square brackets), and is followed by the United Nations Chemical Number to identify all classified dangerous goods.
Explosive Class 1 Explosive, can explode due to flame shock or friction
Flammable Class 2.1 Inflammable gases, can readily burn or catch fire
.
 Class 3.1 Inflammable liquids, flashpoint below -18oC
.
 Class 3.2 Inflammable liquids, flashpoint between -18oC and 23oC
.
 Class 3.3 Inflammable liquids, flashpoint between 23oC and 61oC
.
 Class 4.1 Inflammable solid, can readily burn or catch fir
.
 Class 4.2 Inflammable solid, liable to spontaneous combustion
.
 Class 4.3 Inflammable solid, emits inflammable gases when wet
Oxidizing Class 5.1 Oxidizing agents, can react with substances to form great heat
.
 Class 5.2 Organic peroxides
Poison Class 6.11. Toxic substances, severe risk if absorbed
Harmful Class 6.12. Harmful substance, some health risk if absorbed
Corrosive Class 8 Corrosives, can destroy living tissue on contact
Irritating Non-corrosive, but can damage skin if prolonged contact
15.1.1 Dust explosions
Dusts have a huge surface / volume ratio so have a huge potential for explosive chemical reactions.
The conditions necessary for a dust explosion to occur are combustible dust, confinement of dust by walls, dispersion of dust into a cloud above a certain concentration, oxidant present, e.g. air.
The ignition temperatures of dust explosion may be comparatively low, e.g. sugar dust at density 60 g / m3 ha ignition temperature 370oC.
The ignition of Lycopodium powder, icing sugar, dusting sugar, vanilla bean dusting sugar, or any other powders or dusts in sealed coffee tins is not recommended in school science laboratories.
15.7.0 Flammable organic chemicals
Do NOT use in school laboratories
Table 15.7.0 Flammable organic chemicals
Chemical Flashpoint
 UN No.
 Formula, comment
Benzene, benzol -11oC 1114 C6H6, Harmful, possibly carcinogenic, (use cyclohexane or methylbenzene)
Butan-1-ol +29oC 1120 CH3(CH2)2CH2OH
Butan-2-ol +24oC 1120 CH3CH2CHOHCH3, sec-butyl alcohol
Carbon disulfide -30oC 1131 CS2, Poison, (alcohol sulfuris)
Cyclohexane -20oC 1145 C6H12, (students may use < 2 mL in fume cupboard, as substitute for benzene)
Diethyl ether -40oC 1155 (C2H5)2O, ethoxyethane, anaesthetic ether, ether, sulfuric ether
Iso-octane -12oC 1262 C8H18, 2, 2, 4-trimethylpentane
n-Octane +13oC 1262 CH3(CH2)6CH3
Methanol +12oC 1230 CH3OH, methyl alcohol, wood alcohol, (in methylated spirits), Harmful, highly toxic causes blindness
Petroleum spirit <-18oC 1271 petroleum ether, spirit, benzine
Propan-1-ol +15oC 1274 C2H5CH2OH, Isomer propan-1-ol, n-propyl alcohol, 1-propanol
Propan-2-ol +22oC 1219 (CH3)2CHOH, Isopropyl alcohol, 2-propanol, Iso amyl alcohol, rubbing alcohol
Toluene +7oC 1294 C6H5CH3
15.8.0 Flammable organic chemicals with low flashpoint, below 32oC
Acetaldehyde, Acetone, (nail polish remover), Acetonitrile, Acetyl chloride, Acrylonitrile, Allyl iodide,
Chloromethane,
1,2-Dichloroethane, Diethylamine, Diethyl carbonate, 1,3-difluorobenzene, Dimethyl ether, Dioxan, (dioxane),
Ethanol, Ethyl acetate, Ethyl acrylate, Ethyl chloroformate, Ethyl formate,
Hexane, n-hexane,
Methylated spirit, Methyl ethyl ketone, Methyl Isobutyl ketone (MIBK),
Octane,
Pentane, Piperidine, Isopropyl alcohol, Pyridine,
Tetrahydrofuran, Triethylamine
Vinyl acetate.
15.9.0 Cryogenic substances
These chemicals should be handled only by teachers trained in the safe storage and dispensing of cryogenic substances, e.g. liquid nitrogen, oxygen and helium, and also solid carbon dioxide, "dry ice".
These substance evaporate briskly at room temperature to increase pressure to dangerous levels in closed containers.
Students should be kept at least one metre away from these substances to avoid frost bite.
Children have been injured when allowed to lick the "dry ice" used by ice cream sellers.
15.10.0
Chemicals Not permitted in schools, Australia
Ammonium chlorate, Violently explosive
Ammonium perchlorate, Violently explosive
Anaesthetic ether, diethyl ether, Extremely flammable
Aniline, phenylamine, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Arsenic and compounds
Arsenic, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Arsenic triiodide, arsenic (III) iodide, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Arsenic trioxide, arsenic (III) oxide, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Arsenic (III) iodide, arsenic triiodide, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Arsenic (III) oxide, arsenic trioxide, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Arsenious acid, arsenic trioxide, toxic, carcinogenic
Asbestos
Asbestos, crocidolite, blue asbestos, Extremely toxic if inhaled into lungs, carcinogenic
Benzene, benzol, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Benzidine, 4,4'-diaminobiphenyl, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
Benzol, benzene, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Beryllium, metal, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
Beryllium chloride, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
Bis(chloromethyl) Ether, dichlorodiniethyl ether, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
Blue asbestos, asbestos, Extremely toxic if inhaled into lungs, carcinogenic
Cadmium and compounds
Cadmium, Highly toxic
Cadmium carbonate, Highly toxic
Cadmium chloride, Highly toxic
Cadmium oxide, Highly toxic
Cadmium sulfate, Highly toxic
Carbazotic acid, picric acid, Explosive when dry and compacted
Carbon disulfide, Extremely flammable, extremely toxic
Carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloromethane, Extremely toxic, possibly carcinogenic
Chloral, trichloroacetaldehyde, Moderately toxic, drug addiction
Chloral hydrate, 1,1,1-trichloroethanediol, Moderately toxic, drug addiction
Chloric acid, chloric (V) acid, Violently explosive mixtures with combustible materials
Chloric (VII) acid, perchloric acid, Violently explosive mixtures with combustible materials
Chloroform, Toxic
Chromium compounds
Chromic acid, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
Chromic anhydride, chromium (VI) oxide, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
Chromium trioxide, chromium (VI) oxide, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
Chromium (VI) oxide, chromium trioxide, chromic anhydride, chromic acid, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
Copper arsenite, copper acetoarsenite, CuAsHO3, Toxic
Crocidolite, asbestos, Extremely toxic if inhaled into lungs, carcinogenic
Di(2-chloroethyl) ether, 2,2'-dichlorodiethyl ether, Highly toxic
4,4'-Diaminobiphenyl, benzidine, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
3,3'-Dichlorobenzidine, dichlorobiphenyl-4,4'-diamine, Highly toxic
Dichlorobiphenyl-4,4'-diamine, 3,3'-dichlorobenzidine, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
2,2'-Dichlorodiethyl ether, Highly toxic
Dichlorodimethyl ether, bis-(chloromethyl) ether, Highly toxic and carcinogenic
Diethyl ether, anaesthetic ether, ether, sulfuric ether, ethoxyethane, Extremely flammable
Diethyl sulfate, Extremely toxic, probably carcinogenic
Dimethyl sulfate, Extremely toxic, probably carcinogenic
3,3'-Dimethylbiphenyl-4,4'-diamine, o-tolodine, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
4-Dinitrobiphenyl, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
Ether, diethyl ether, Extremely flammable
Ethoxyethane, diethyl ether, Extremely flammable
Ethylene oxide, oxirane, oxiran, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
5-Fluorouracil, Highly toxic
Hardite, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Hydrocyanic acid, hydrogen cyanide, Extremely toxic
Hydrofluoric acid, Extremely toxic
Hydrogen cyanide, hydrocyanic acid, Extremely toxic
Lithium aluminium hydride, lithium tetrahydroaluminate, Explosive mixture if fine particles mixed with air
Lithium tetrahydroaluminate, Lithium aluminium hydride, Explosive mixture if fine particles mixed with air
Magnesium perchlorate, anhydrone, Violently explosive mixtures with combustible materials, organic compounds, ammonium compounds
Mercury and compounds
Mercury, Highly toxic
Mercury salts, Highly toxic
Mercury (I) chloride, Highly toxic
Mercury (II) chloride, Highly toxic
Magnesium perchlorate, anhydrone
Naphthalene compounds
Naphthalene-l-amine, 1-naphthylamine, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
Naphthalene-2-amine, 2-naphthylamine, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
1-Naphthylamine, α-naphthylamine, naphthalene-1-amine, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
2-Naphthylamine, beta-naphthylamine, naphthalene-2-amine, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
alpha-Naphythylamine, 1-naphthylamine, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
beta-Naphythylamine, 2-naphthylamine, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
4-Nitrobiphenol, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
Nitrogen triiodide, Explosive when dry
2-Nitrosophenol, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
3-Nitrosophenol, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
4-Nitrosophenol, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
l-Nitronaphthalene, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
2-Nitronaphthalene, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
Osmium tetroxide, osmic acid, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
o-Tolodine, Highly toxic if ingested
Oxirane, oxiran, ethylene oxide, Extremely toxic, carcinogenic
PCBs, Moderately toxic, probably carcinogenic
Perchloric acid 50-72%, chloric (VII) acid, Violently explosive mixtures with combustible materials
Perchloric acid <50%, chloric (VII) acid, perchloric acid 50-72%, Explosive mixtures with combustible materials
Phenol, carbolic acid
Phenylamine, aniline, Extremely toxic
Phosphorus
Phosphorus, white, white phosphorus, yellow phosphorus, Extremely toxic, ignites spontaneously, extreme fire hazard
Picric acid, 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, trinitrophenol, carbazotic acid, Explosive when dry and compacted
Polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs, Moderately toxic, probably carcinogenic
Potassium and compounds
Potassium, metal, Reacts violently with water to form hydrogen, which ignites or explodes
Potassium amide, Highly toxic, highly corrosive, reacts violently with water
Potassium chlorate, Violently explosive mixtures with combustible materials
Potassium cyanide, Extremely poisonous
Potassium perchlorate, Violently explosive mixtures with combustible materials
Potassium sulfide, Highly toxic, highly corrosive, may ignite in air
Sodium compounds
Sodium amide, sodamide, Highly toxic, flammable, reacts violently with water
Sodium azide, Extremely toxic
Sodium chlorate, Violently explosive mixtures with combustible materials
Sodium cyanide, Extremely poisonous, with acids forms toxic hydrogen cyanide gas
Sodium perchlorate, Violently explosive mixtures with combustible materials
Sodium peroxide, Violently explosive mixtures with combustible materials
Sulfuric ether, diethyl ether, Extremely flammable
Tetrachloromethane, carbon tetrachloride, Extremely toxic, possibly carcinogenic
Thallium compounds
Thallium chloride, Extremely toxic
Thallium nitrate, Extremely toxic
Thallium sulfate, Extremely toxic
Thorium, Radioactive
o-Tolidine, 3,3'-dimethylbiphenyl-4,4-diamine, Highly toxic, carcinogenic impurities
Trichloroacetaldehyde, chloral, Moderately toxic, drug addiction
1,1,1-Trichloroethanediol, chloral hydrate, Moderately toxic, drug addiction
Trinitrophenol, picric acid, Explosive when dry and compacted
2,4,6-Trinitrophenol, picric acid, Explosive when dry and compacted
9.1.8 Escape from submerged car
1. The advice from emergency authorities nowadays is that as soon as a car hits the water and starts to sink, do the following:
Immediately undo the seat belts, wind down the windows and exit through the opened windows.
The front side windows may be larger than the hind windows.
Do not waste time by calling 999 first.
If children are in the back of the car, get the largest child out first, then the smaller child or children, then yourself.
2. If the car submerges before you can get out, the door of a submerged car cannot be opened until the interior is flooded, The pressure differential between outside and inside is too great for a trapped person to force open the door.
The inside and outside pressures must be equalized, so the interior must be flooded first.
A trapped person should try to remain calm and not attempt to open the door until the interior is almost flooded.
A trapped person can open a window in a submerged car only by using a window breaking hammer, which has a pointed tip to shatter tempered glass.
These hammers are cheap, costing only about $10.