UNPh39.1

School Science Lessons
(UNPh39.1)
2024-04-09

Electronics, Counting circuits
Contents
39.1.0 Counting circuits
39.2.0 Voltage outputs from the pulsar / astable module
39.3.0 Clocked bistable
39.4.0 Four 4 bit binary counters from clocked bistables, binary up-counter
39.5.0 Four 4 bit binary counters from clocked bistables, binary down-counter

39.1.0 Counting circuits
39.1.01 Counting circuits
39.1.2 Linking the counter to a decoder and seven segment display
39.1.3 Counters of different moduli
39.1.4 Switch contact bounce
39.1.5 Bistable circuit to eliminate contact bounce
39.1.6 One bit memory from NAND gates and an RS bistable
39.1.7 Linking two single digit counters to make a dual decade counter

39.1.01 Counting circuits
See diagram 39.9.1 Four-bit binary counter circuit.
Connect the pulser to the input of a 4 bit counters of the Binary Counter module.
Monitor each of the four output lines with a LED indicator.
If any of the indicators are lit, use a flying lead to take the RESET input briefly high.
The counter can be reset to zero anytime by taking this RESET input high.
Apply pulses to the counter one at a time.
Note whether the display changes on the rising or failing edge of the clock pulse.
Send 16 pulses to the counter and check that the indicators correctly display the number of pulses in binary.
Replace the pulser by the 1 Hz output signal from an astable unit.
Watch the system repeatedly cycle from 0000 through to 1111 and back to 0000 again.
With the 1 Hz signal still connected, disconnect indicators A, B and C and note the frequency of the output signal at D.
Applications using counting circuits
39.1.01 Divide-by-N counting
39.1.02 Down-counting 1.
39.1.03 Down-counting 2.
39.1.04 Counting the swings of a pendulum
39.1.05 Controlling a motor 1.
39.1.06 Controlling a motor 2.
39.1.07 Reversing a motor at regular intervals
39.1.08 Flashing a lamp six times, six pips
39.1.09 Automatic light buoy
39.1.010 Electronic die
39.1.011 Traffic lights
39.1.012 Batch counting
39.1.013 Reaction time

39.1.2 Linking the counter to a decoder and seven-segment display
See diagram 39.1.1.
Remove the LED indicators and connect the Seven Segment Decoder / Display module as shown below.
First reset the counter by taking the RESET input briefly high.
Then use the pulser to apply pulses one at a time to the clock input of the counter.
Copy down the display after each pulse.
The modules may display blank or show strange patterns for the numbers 10 to 15, because the BC D to seven segment decoder and the seven segment display are only designed to show the scale of ten (decimal) digits 0 to 9 (binary 0000 to 1001).
The binary numbers 1010 to 1111 are generated by the counter, but result may be a blank display or odd patterns.
Instead of using a chain of bistables to count pulses, use a single integrated circuit.
For example, the IC used in the 4 bit binary counter module does the job of four bistables in sequence.
It counts from 0000 to 1111, then resets itself automatically to 0000 and starts counting up again.
The number of different states a counter goes through before repeating is called the modulus of the count.
The 4 bit binary counter changes state on the failing (negative) edge of an applied clock pulse and has a RESET input, which is normally held low and taken briefly high to set all outputs to zero.
The advantage of negative edge clocking in the present course is that several of these counters can be directly cascaded if mufti digit readouts are required.
Clock pulses for the second stage are provided by the D output of the first stage.
Since this D output has a failing edge after every sixteenth pulse, the system continues to count upwards in the required manner.
With counters that change state on the rising edge of a clock pulse, an inverter would be needed between each stage.
A multidigit binary to scale of ten (binary coded decimal or BCD) counter can be produced in much the same way except that it is necessary to reset each stage after it has received 10 pulses at its input.
This is achieved by using an AND gate (made from two NAND gates) as shown below.
The output from the first NAND gate is used to clock the next stage.

39.1.3 Counters of different moduli
See diagram 39.9.2.
Connect an AND gate (use two NAND gates) between the B and D output lines and the RESET input.
Apply a 1 Hz signal from the astable unit to the clock input of the counter.
The system now counts from 0 to 9 and then resets itself and starts counting upwards from zero again.
Connect the same AND gate so that the counter:
1. counts to 2 and resets,
2. counts to 4 and resets,
3. counts to 5 and resets,
4. counts to 8 and resets.
In each case draw a diagram showing the connection of the AND gate.

How many AND gates are needed to make a counter which:
1. counts to 1 and resets,
2. counts to 3 and resets,
3. counts to 6 and resets
4. counts to 7 and resets?
Draw a diagram of the connections, and check that the system really does behave as expected.

Build and test counters of different moduli using the 4-bit Counter module and NAND gates.
Use the 4-bit binary counting sequence.
In a counter with modulus 5, the numbers 0 to 4 must be displayed.
The counter must then reset to zero immediately the next state (0101) appears at the outputs.
This is done by using an AND gate (or two NAND gates) to detect when the A and C digits are both 1 and provide the high state necessary to reset the counter.
Counters of other moduli are designed in the same way.
For connections for all moduli between 2 and 9, more than two NAND gates are required only for the module 7.
So high states must be detected on three lines.
Use two AND gates (or four NAND gates).

39.1.4 Switch contact bounce
See diagram 39.9.3.
In the circuit, a flying lead is connected to a clock input of the 4-bit Binary Counter module.
Set up the circuit with the flying lead connected initially to the negative rail.
Note the number displayed and then pulse the clock input once by touching the lead to the positive rail and then the negative rail.
Note the number displayed again.
Do this several times.
Note whether the count displayed increase in steps of one.

39.1.5 Using a bistable circuit to eliminate contact bounce
See diagram 39.9.3.1.
1. Connect the bistable circuit, made from two NAND gates, as shown below.
Note that the 0 output of the bistable is connected to the clock input of the counter.
Connect a flying lead to the negative rail.
Use the flying lead to send pulses to the counter by touching it first to input 1 and then to input 2 and so on.
Does the count displayed now increase by one each time?
Explain the action of the bistable in the above circuit.
In work with clocked bistables and counters use a pulser unit to provide the necessary clock pulses.
The purpose of the present experiment is to show why such a special unit is necessary, and the way it is constructed.
In the first part of the experiment the counter behaves erratically.
The count displayed may increase by more than one for each cycle of operation.
This is because of contact bounce.
Any ordinary switch also suffers from contact bounce.
Experiment 39.3.0 would be better done with an SPDT switch rather than a flying lead, as in the notes which follow.
Contact bounce arises when the moving contact of the switch bounces on and off a fixed contact before settling in position.
This results in the production of a series of pulses rather than a single "clean" pulse.
(Note that the clock input is normally high when unconnected.)
Note that, K the clock input is normally high (which it is on the counter module), the extra pulses are positive going and are generated when the switch goes to as low position.
Contact bounce does, of course, also occur when the switch goes to its high position, but in this case extra pulses are unlikely to be produced.
This is because the clock input itself will remain in its normally high position during bouncing unless the bounce is so severe that the moving contact touches the low voltage line again.
Contact bounce plays havoc with circuits such as clocked bistables and counters, because the extra pulses are real pulses that clock the system.
2. So it is necessary to use some electronic circuitry to remove the effect.
In the present experiment two NAND gates connected as a bistable are used.
The R and S inputs are normally high and that the R input must be taken briefly low to enter the state with 0 = 0 and 5 = 1.
To enter the other stable state (0 =1 and 5 = 0) the S input must be taken briefly low.
The key point in the present application is that once the S or R input has been taken low a first time, taking the same input low a second or further time has no effect, provided the switch does not move back to its original position in between.
So if the bistable is initially in the state with 0=0 and the moving switch contact is pushed from position 2 to position 1, the S input will be taken low and 0 will be set high.
K the moving contact bounces on and off the fixed contact at position 1, but not so severely as to touch 2 again, the S input will be taken repeatedly low, but this will not affect the state of the bistable (0 remains high).
When the moving contact is pushed back to position 2, the R input will be taken low and 0 will be reset to zero.
Again, contact bounce will have no effect, because the bistable was reset at the moment of first contact and taking the R input low several times in succession produces no further changes.
In this way a single low high low pulse is produced at the 0 output every time the moving contact is moved from position 2 to 1 and back to 2 again.
The single pulser output on the pulsar / astable module used in this course is, in fact, made in this way to avoid contact bounce.

39.1.6 One-bit memory from NAND gates and an RS bistable
See diagram 39.9.4.
Set up the circuit below and connect a 1 Hz signal from the pulsar / astable module to the data input and a flying lead to the hold input.
Take the hold input high.
What happens? Now take the hold input low.
What happens? Try to explain how the circuit works.
The way the circuit works can be explained as follows.
Suppose first the HOLD input is high.
Then when the data input is high, the voltage levels are as shown below.
When the data input is low, the voltage levels are as follows:
So the final output FOLLOWS the input (the two indicators are either both high or both low).
When the data input is high, 0 is high.
When the data input is low, 0 is low.
However, making the HOLD input low, with high data input and with low data input whether the data input is high or low, the outputs of the two NAND gates are both high.
However, the RS bistable only changes when one of the points S or R goes low, so the output stays as it was when the hold went low.
What was then showing is still showing, so it is HELD, or MEMORIZED.

39.1.7 Linking two single digit counters to make a dual decade counter
See diagram 39.9.5.
Design a counter to display counts from 0 to 99 on two seven segment LED displays using an astable to produce the pulses to be counted, two binary counters, two seven segment displays with decoders and a Quad NAND module.
The dual decade counter above consists of two linked binary counters each with its own AND gate and decoder / display.
In practice, a dual decade counter would be made using BCD counters.
BCD counters count from 0000 to 1001 only and are then reset to zero by circuitry inside the chip.
External NAND gates are not then required.
The BCD chip also has a reset facility, which allows the outputs to be set to 0000.
A dual decade counter would normally incorporate hold / follow latches as well.
A hold / follow latch is also called a "storage latch" or a "storage register'.
The chip contains 4 of the memory circuits of 39.4 each sharing a common hold input.
When the hold input is taken low, the output voltage levels of the latch are held at the values present at the inputs at the moment "hold" went low.
This has the effect of freezing "the display so that the numbers can be read.
Naturally the use of latches is essential when the input frequency exceeds a few Hz.
When a dual decade counter is used with an astable of known frequency, the combination provide a versatile timing facility.
For example, when used with an input signal of frequency 100 Hz, the counter registers time in steps of 0.01 s up to a maximum time of 0.99 seconds.

39.1.01 Divide-by-N counting
Build a divide by 256 counter from two 4 bit binary counters.
Use the counter to measure the frequency of the AC mains.
Provide with a suitable source of mains frequency pulses for this experiment.
The simple haft wave rectifying circuit shown above works well, but the transformer supply for it must be different from any used to provide a stabilized power supply for the modules.
An alternative is to use the 100 Hz output of the astable.
Only positive "g" pulses should be applied to the input of the NAND gate if K is not to be damaged.
Check circuits to ensure correct polarity before switching on the AC supply.
Also, the peak voltage across the 1 kQ resistor should not exceed the power supply voltage applied to the modules.
For modules operating from 5 V, a 2 V AC supply to the half-wave rectifier should be adequate.
For modules operating from 6 V, a 4 V AC supply should be satisfactory.
Measure the frequency at which indicator D on the second counter flashes.
They can simply use a stopwatch and measure the time for cycles, e.g. 10.
A typical measurement is about 10 cycles in 50 s.
The frequency f of the mains is then calculated as: f = 10 / 50 X 256 = 51.2 Hz.
39.1.02 Down-counting

39.1.02 Down-counting (1)
See diagram 39.8.3.2.
Using a 4-bit binary counter, design a circuit counts down from 15 (binary1111) to zero (0000).
Use LED indicators to display the count.

30.1.039 Down-counting (2)
See diagram 39.8.3.2.
Using a 4-bit binary counter, design a circuit counts down from 7 (binary 111) to zero (000) and then returns to 7.
Display the count with a seven-segment indicator.
The D input of the seven-segment display must be connected to the negative supply rail to display the digits 0 to 7.

39.1.04 Counting the swings of a pendulum
Build a circuit will count the swings (i.e. 1 2 -cycles) of a pendulum.
Use a 4-bit counter and a seven-segment Decoder / Display module for this.
The circuit above will count the "1 2 -cycles" of the pendulum if a light beam is arranged to fall on the LDR and if the pendulum bob passes through the light beam.
If the counter is set to zero, it will count "1" the first time the bob passes through the beam, no matter from where the bob is released.
Try to add to the circuit so that counting starts following the first interruption of the beam.
Replacing the direct connection between X and Y above with the circuit opposite should result in the first transit activating the counter if the 0 output of the bistable is initially reset to 0 by means of the flying lead.

39.1.05 Controlling a motor (1)
Built a circuit turns an electric motor on for 10 s in every 20 s.
Note that the negative going pulse, produced by the NAND gate connected to the B and D outputs of the module 10 counter every time the count reaches ten, is used to change the state of the clocked RS bistable.
Since the 0 output is therefore alternately high for 10 s and low for 10 S, the motor is on for 10 s in 20 s.

39.1.06 Controlling a motor (2)
Build a circuit turns an electric motor on for 5 s in every 20 s.
Note that the first bistable is driven by a module 5 counter so that its 0 output is high for 5 s and then low for 5 s.
The 0 output of the second bistable is high for 10 s and low for 10 s.
The output of NAND gate 1 is therefore low for 5 s in every 20 s.

39.1.7 Reversing a motor at regular intervals
Design a control circuit for an automatic liquid mixer.
The circuit should reverse the direction of rotation of the mixer motor every 5 s.
Note that the circuit is similar to that of 39.6 except that a module 5 counter is required and the relay switch is used with 2 batteries to reverse the motor.

39.1.08 Flashing a lamp six times, six pips
Design a circuit will flash a lamp six times when a switch is pressed and released, using the 1 Hz output from an astable.
Then modify the circuit so that it will sound a buer six times.
The counter counts 6 input pulses and NAND gate 3 then causes the AND gate, formed by gates 1 and 2, to close.
Pressing the switch resets the counter and the process repeats.
To sound a buer 6 times, the LED indicator should be replaced by the buer.
See note (2) of 39.2.2.1 for possible difficulties with driving buers from CMOS gates.
A non-inverting buffer may be needed.

39.1.09 Automatic light buoy
A warning buoy in a shipping channel is to have a light flashes.
It is to be on for 1 s and off for 4 S.
Design a circuit will do this.
Use the pulser / astable module to provide 1 Hz pulses.
Then adapt the circuit so that the light only operates when it is dark.

39.1.010 Electronic dice
Build an electronic dice using clocked RS bistables, an astable, a seven-segment decoder / display and NAND gates.
The display should normally cycle from 1 to 6 at high speed.
When the hold input on the input gate is taken low, the display should freeze and show the result of the "Throw".
The tricky part of this experiment is to make the display count from 1 to 6, i.e. to reset the count to 1 rather than to 0 after each cycle.
This can be done using three clocked RS bistables as a module 7 counter and resetting just the two providing the B and C inputs when the count reaches 7.
Note that NAND gates 1, 2 and 3 form a 3 input NAND gate provides the necessary negative going reset pulse when all three 0 outputs are high.
The unused D input to the decoder / display must not be allowed to float in this application, since it will assume a high state and upset the display.
Tie this input low.

39.1.011 Traffic lights
Build a control circuit for a set of traffic lights.
Use the 1 Hz astable output for all timing, and the red, yellow and green LEDs on the Indicator module for lights.
The lights must, of course, come on in the normal traffic light sequence (yellow, red, red and yellow, green, and back to yellow again).
A number of different solutions to the traffic lights problem is possible.
The above is one of the simplest.
To see how the circuit works, consider the following timing diagram.
The yellow LED is driven directly from the astable, and lights when the clock is high.
With the red LED driven from the 0 output, the initial yellow, red, yellow and red output sequence is obtained during the first three half cycles of the clock.
On the fourth half cycle, both yellow and red are off (as required), and the green LED must be turned on.
At this time, both the clock and 0 are low, so an AND gate driven by and the inverse of the clock will provide a high output to light the green LED.

39.1.012 Batch counting
Articles in a factory are delivered from an assembly room to a packing room along a conveyor belt.
Design a system will stop the conveyor belt (turn off its motor) every time a batch of five articles has entered the packing room.
Provide a switch in this room can be used to restart the conveyor belt motor once the articles have been removed from the belt for packing.
In a practical system, the LDR would perhaps be placed at the entrance of the packing room.
Each article would be counted as it interrupted a light beam failing on the LDR when entering the packing room.
The NAND gate connected to outputs A and C of the module 5 counter produces a negative going pulse every time five articles have been counted.
This pulse resets an RS bistable turns the conveyor belt motor off.
A manual switch is used to set the RS bistable to re-start the motor.

39.1.013 Reaction time
Build a circuit can be used to test people's reaction times.
A switch should be provided starts a dual decade counter (see 39.5) counting 100 Hz pulses from an astable.
This switch is operated secretly by the person controlling the test.
A second switch should freeze the display.
The person under test operates the switch when the display changes.
The dual decade module should then show the time difference between the two switch closures, i.e. the reaction time of the person under test.
The principle of a solution is shown above.
First, a flying lead is used to reset the dual decade counter to zero.
Then the person controlling the test opens the NAND gate 1 by disconnecting lead L from the negative rail.
The person under lest responds directly the display is seen to change by using switch S to take the input of NAND 2 low.
This freezes the display with the reaction time shown in one hundredths of a second.
In practice, the experiment is likely to be unreliable, because of contact bounce problems.
Bounce free switches could be made, but that would require four more NAND gates.
An alternative method is to replace the input circuitry to the left of X in the circuit above with that below.
The NAND gate is closed by pressing S so making the 0 output low.
Counting is started by clocking the bistable once from the pulser output, so opening the NAND gate.
The gate is closed again by pressing S when the counter is seen to start.
The experiment can be extended in various ways.
One possibility is for a buer to sound at the same time as the NAND gate opens.
The reaction of the person under test to an audible signal can then be investigated, and compared with the response to a visual stimulus.

39.2.0 Voltage outputs from the pulsar / astable module
See diagram 39.8.1.0.
A pulser is a device that generates electrical pulses.
The pulsar / astable module has two independent sections.
The first section is called a pulser.
It has one output socket and a switch.
Below section is an astable section, also with one output socket and a switch.
Connect the lower astable output to a LED indicator as in the diagram and move the switch at the side of the output socket to the 1 Hz position.
The module must be connected to its power supply.
Observe the LED and describe the action of the astable output does by connecting a voltmeter between the output and the negative rail and sketching the output waveform.
(A waveform is the shape of a wave at any moment.)
Move the astable switch to the 100 Hz position.
Transfer the LED lead to the pulser output socket from the astable output socket.
Operate the switch and see what happens.
As in other digital circuits, the output of an astable can be high or low.
However, an astable output continually and automatically switches between these two states.
The output is stable in neither state so it is called an astable or square wave oscillator, square wave generator, or free running multivibrator.
The astable module produces square output voltage pulses with a mark space ratio of about 1.
This means that the period for which the output is high equals the period for which it is low.
In this experiment, the two fixed frequencies are available, about 1 Hz and 100 Hz.
A constant frequency waveform of the above kind is called a clock signal.
Clock pulses from the astable unit can be used to provide timing signals for electronic circuits.
The pulser output goes high when the switch is pressed and returns to low when the switch is released.
This provides a convenient way of producing a single pulse and controlling its duration manually.
The pulser is a bounce less switch.
To convert an ordinary switch into a bounce less switch use a bistable circuit.

39.3.0 Clocked bistable
See diagram 39.8.2.
Use the pulser to investigate a clocked bistable.
Like the bistable built from NAND gates there are SET and RESET inputs, and 0 and U outputs.
If the clock input is not used, the new bistable behaves in the same way as the NAND gate version.
Use the pulsar / astable module to investigate the behaviour of one of the bistables on the clocked bistables module.
The SET and RESET inputs behave in the same way as with an ordinary bistable.
If the SET input (S) is taken briefly low, the bistable enters the state with Q1 = 1 and Q2 = 0 (the SET state, in which Q1 has been set to 1).
When the RESET input (R) is taken briefly low, the state with Q1 = 0 and Q1 = 1 is entered (the RESET state, in which Q1 has been reset to 0).
However, the bistable now has a third input, the clock input.
Without the pulser connected, use flying leads to take the SET and RESET inputs low alternately.
When the pulser is connected to the clock input and the SET and RESET inputs are not used and the bistable changes state every time the pulser is operated.
The bistable changes state every time a clock pulse is applied to its clock input.
Remove the flying leads and leave the SET and RESET inputs unconnected.
Apply pulses one at a time to the clock input using the pulser.
What happens?
Does the bistable change state when the pulse is applied, i.e. the rising edge of the clock pulse, or when it is switched off, i.e. the failing edge of the clock pulse?
The actual change of state occurs on the falling edge, of an applied clock pulse, that is, when the pulser switch is released rather than when it is pressed.
Clock the bistable with the 1 Hz output from the astable part of the pulsar / astable module.
What is the frequency of the Q output? Because the change occurs on the failing edge of the pulse, the consequent changes in Q1 and Q2 are summarized in diagram 39.8.2.1.
The bistable only changes state on the failing edge of a clock pulse.
One complete low high low pulse from the Q1 or Q2 output is produced for every two complete clock pulses at the input.
So the bistable produces one output pulse for every two input pulses.
Clocked bistables make use of two bistable systems connected in a master slave configuration.
Pulses are routed alternately to the SET and RESET inputs through clock input on the bistable.

39.4.0 Four 4 bit binary counters from clocked bistables, binary up-counter
See diagram 39.8.3.1.
Connect four clocked bistables together as in the diagram, and connect a LED indicator to each of the Q outputs.
Use the flying lead connected to the RESET inputs to turn all indicators off, i.e. all Q outputs low.
Apply pulses one at a time to the left hand bistable using the pulser.
Complete the following tables, noting that the states of indicators ABCD are entered in the order D C B A in the right hand columns.
Note that the right hand columns represent the number of pulses as a 4 bit binary number.
So the four clocked bistables act as a 4 bit binary counter.
Replace the pulser by a 1 Hz clock signal from the astable.
Watch the system continually counting from 0 to 15 in binary.
Remove the astable and reset all outputs to zero, all indicators off.
Use the pulser to apply 16 pulses one at a time to the left hand bistable.
Complete the following.
Number of clock pulses at input = 16
Number of pulses at output A = 8
Number of pulses at output B =4
Number of pulses at output C = 2
Number of pulses at output D = 1
Use the 1 Hz output from the astable and a stopwatch to check the frequency of the pulses produced at the D output if a clock signal of frequency 1 Hz were applied to the left hand clock input.

39.5.0 Four 4 bit binary counters from clocked bistables, Binary down-counter
See diagram 39.8.3.2.
Change the above circuit so that the clock inputs are driven by the Q2 outputs, and all the SET inputs are connected together.
Use the flying lead connected to the SET inputs to turn all indicators on, all Q outputs high.
Apply pulses one at a time to the left hand bistable.
Complete the table below, again noting that the states of the indicators are entered in the order D C B A in the right hand columns.
Note that at each pulse, 1 is subtracted from the count represented by the LED indicators.
This is called a binary down-counter.
The experiment shows how clocked bistables can be linked to count pulses in binary.
With four bistables, counts from 0 to 15 (binary 0000 to 1111) can be displayed.
To extend the maximum count add more bistables.
The maximum count with N bistables = 2^N-1.
Where clocked bistables are linked to form binary counters, feed the external clock pulses into the left hand bistable.
The Q output of this bistable represents the least significant bit (LSB) and the Q output of the right hand bistable the most significant bit (MSB).
This results in a display in the reverse order to which binary numbers are usually written.
Draw a diagram showing how each of the Q outputs changes as the clock pulses are fed into the left hand bistable.
All outputs are initially low.
Each bistable changes state on the falling edge of the pulse at its own clock input.
So QA changes state on the failing edge of the clock input; QB changes on the failing edge of QA; QC on the falling edge Of QB, QD on the falling edge of QC.
This binary up-counter changes by adding 1 to the count for every clock pulse.
Feed 16 pulses into the left hand bistable one at a time to get the following results:
Number of clock pulses at input =16
Number of pulses at output A = 8
Number of pulses at output B = 4
Number of pulses at output C = 2
Number of pulses at output D = 1
Each bistable in the chain produces one output pulse for every two pulses at its clock input.
If 16 pulses per second arrive at the input of the first bistable, 1 pulse per second will leave the Q1 output of the fourth bistable.
The system divides the input frequency by 16, so it is called a divide by 16 counter.
A single bistable divides the frequency of a clock signal at its input by 2, while chains of two, three, four or five bistables provide division by 4, 8, 16 and 32 respectively.
A divide-by-N counter will produce output pulses at a frequency 1 / N times the input frequency.
If it contains x bistables, then 2x = N.
Divide-by-N counters are used in electronics systems to generate signals of exact multiples of each other.
For example, the signal from a master oscillator operating at 16 MHz can be divided to produce the 1 MHz clock signal driving a microprocessor.